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<channel>
	<title>gauss &amp;laquo; WordPress.com Tag Feed</title>
	<link>http://wordpress.com/tag/gauss/</link>
	<description>Feed of posts on WordPress.com tagged "gauss"</description>
	<pubDate>Sun, 27 Jul 2008 06:15:35 +0000</pubDate>

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	<language>en</language>

<item>
<title><![CDATA[The Child Genius]]></title>
<link>http://kashifnawaz.wordpress.com/?p=14</link>
<pubDate>Wed, 23 Jul 2008 16:58:51 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>knawaz</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kashifnawaz.wordpress.com/?p=14</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Karl Friedrich Gauss displayed immense mathematical talent from a very early age. Stories tell of hi]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Karl Friedrich Gauss displayed immense mathematical talent from a very early age. Stories tell of him being able to maintain his father's business accounts at age three. In elementary school, he confounded his teacher by observing a pattern that enabled him to avoid a decidedly tedious calculation.</p>
<p>Gauss's teacher had asked the class to add together all the numbers from 1 to 100.</p>
<p>You write down the sum twice, once in ascending order, then in descending order, like this:<br />
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 98 + 99 + 100<br />
100 + 99 + 98 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1<br />
Now you add the two sums, column by column, to give<br />
101 + 101 + 101 + . . . + 101 + 101 + 101<br />
There are exactly 100 copies of the number 101 in this sum, so its value is 100 × 101 = 10,100. Since this<br />
product represents twice the answer.</p>
<p>So generic pattern found is as</p>
<p>1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n = n(n + 1)/2</p>
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<item>
<title><![CDATA[Tahapan Eliminasi Gauss-Jordan dengan Macro Add-in Matrix (Seri Matrix bag.6)]]></title>
<link>http://junaidichaniago.wordpress.com/?p=716</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 22 Jul 2008 00:54:07 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Junaidi</dc:creator>
<guid>http://junaidichaniago.wordpress.com/?p=716</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Tulisan kali ini akan memperkenalkan fasilitas add-in Matrix (lihat tulisan seri Matrix bag.1 pada k]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align:justify;">Tulisan kali ini akan memperkenalkan fasilitas add-in Matrix (lihat tulisan seri Matrix bag.1 pada kategori Tip &#38; Trik di blog ini untuk pengenalan terhadap add-in matrix) yang cukup menarik dalam rangka didaktik (pembelajaran) tahapan eliminasi Gauss-Jordan.<!--more--></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Eliminasi Gauss-Jordan merupakan pengembangan metode eliminasi Gauss (lihat tulisan seri Matrix bag.5), dimana augmented matrik, pada sebelah kiri diubah menjadi matrik identitas. Teknik yang digunakan dalam metode eliminasi Gauss-Jordan ini sama seperti metode eliminasi Gauss yaitu menggunakan operasi baris dasar. Namun demikian perhitungan penyelesaian sistem persamaan linear secara langsung diperoleh dari nilai pada kolom terakhir dari setiap baris. Artinya, kita tidak perlu lagi melakukan substitusi balik untuk mendapatkan nilai-nilai variabel pada sistem persamaan linear.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Dengan menggunakan contoh persamaan pada tulisan sebelumnya, yaitu misalnya kita punya persamaan berikut:</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img src="http://junaidichaniago.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/072208-0253-tahapanelim1.png" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Tahap pertama, bentuklah matriks teraugmentasi dari persamaan tersebut dan sebagai latihan, tempatkan pada range A1:D3 di worksheet Excel, seperti tampilan berikut:</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img src="http://junaidichaniago.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/072208-0253-tahapanelim2.png" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Untuk mendapatkan macro dari add-in matrix, klik icon matrix seperti ini <img src="http://junaidichaniago.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/072208-0253-tahapanelim3.png" alt="" /> di toolbar Excel, maka akan muncul tampilan toolbar baru seperti berikut:</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img src="http://junaidichaniago.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/072208-0253-tahapanelim4.png" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Kemudian klik <strong><em>Macros </em></strong>dan pilih <strong><em>Gauss Step-by-Step</em></strong>, maka akan muncul tampilan berikut:</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img src="http://junaidichaniago.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/072208-0253-tahapanelim5.png" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Pada isian matrix, blok range atau isikan alamat range A1:D3 tersebut . Pada Reduction Type pilih Diagonal. Pada Pivoting pilih only for zero, dan pada Options pilih Integer. Maka, akan keluar hasil tahapan-tahapan eliminasi Gauss-Jordan seperti tampilan berikut: (Silakan bereksprimen dengan mengambil pilihan always pada Pivoting dan last step only pada Options, dan bandingkan hasilnya dengan tampilan di bawah ini.)</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img src="http://junaidichaniago.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/072208-0253-tahapanelim6.png" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><img src="http://junaidichaniago.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/072208-0253-tahapanelim7.png" alt="" /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"> </p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Dari hasil terakhir eliminasi Gauss-Jordan (lihat di range A53:J55 pada tampilan diatas) kita mendapatkan matriks identitas, dan pada kolom disampingnya (K53:K55) adalah vektor solusi untuk sistem persamaan linear. Dengan demikian kita dapatkan solusi untuk nilai x = -1, y=2 dan z=1. Bandingkan dengan solusi menggunakan metode Eliminasi Gauss pada tulisan sebelumnya</p>
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<item>
<title><![CDATA[Peculiar city names]]></title>
<link>http://thekarin.wordpress.com/?p=16</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 14 Jul 2008 05:05:58 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>thekarin</dc:creator>
<guid>http://thekarin.wordpress.com/?p=16</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Andy and I were talking on the phone tonight, and the conversation stirred in the direction of his o]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Andy and I were talking on the phone tonight, and the conversation stirred in the direction of his opinions on the town in which he lives. He's in Arcata, California, and he mentioned Eureka, California and its list of disadvantages.</p>
<p>I got slightly distracted (just a little, Andy!), and thought of how someone got the idea of calling a place "Eureka". What's with the Archimedian streak? Then I started laughing quite a bit at the thought of some nitwit leaping into the air, squeaking "Eureka!"</p>
<p>Andy, however, shared an even better insight - <a href="http://maps.google.ca/maps?hl=en&#38;client=firefox-a&#38;rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&#38;hs=T4Z&#38;q=truth%20or%20consequences%2C%20new%20mexico&#38;um=1&#38;ie=UTF-8&#38;sa=N&#38;tab=wl" target="_blank">Truth or Consequences, New Mexico</a>! Whoa, I must say. The town bears the name of an old American quiz show. Towns with names like these definitely have a higher place on my dislike of some North American city-naming traditions (I have a penchant for discrediting towns with names such as Paris, [insert states] or Moscow, [insert state])</p>
<p><strong>Did you know?!</strong> -&#62; <a title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>, echoed Archimedes when in 1796 he wrote in his notebook, "ΕΥΡΗΚΑ! num= Δ + Δ + Δ", referring to his discovery that any positive <a title="Integer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer">integer</a> could be expressed as the sum of at most three <a title="Triangular number" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular_number">triangular numbers</a>. <strong>Thx, wiki!</strong></p>
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<item>
<title><![CDATA[RMN.. sau cum să vezi prin oameni...]]></title>
<link>http://iulianmd.wordpress.com/?p=66</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 06 Jul 2008 10:47:03 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>iulianmd</dc:creator>
<guid>http://iulianmd.wordpress.com/?p=66</guid>
<description><![CDATA[
Date fiind ultimele evenimente din viaţa mea, dimineaţa asta s-a dovedit a fi una foarte plictisi]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://iulianmd.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/mri1.png"><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-67" src="http://iulianmd.wordpress.com/files/2008/07/mri1.png" alt="" width="497" height="198" /></a></p>
<p>Date fiind ultimele evenimente din viaţa mea, dimineaţa asta s-a dovedit a fi una foarte plictisitoare. Şi din una în alta am început să mă gândesc la progresele tehnologice pe care le-a facut omenirea în ultima sută de ani.. nu mi-a luat mult până să ajung la cele din domeniul medicinei.</p>
<p>Când mă uitam la <a title="IMDB Link" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0412142/">House MD</a> tot vedeam acolo cum doctoru' ăsta dat naibii, îşi trimitea lacheii daţi naibii să supună pacienţii unui test numit <strong>MRI</strong> (<strong>M</strong>agnetic <strong>R</strong>esonance <strong>I</strong>maging), în traducere liberă <strong>IRM</strong> (<strong>I</strong>magistică prin <strong>R</strong>ezonanţă <strong>M</strong>agnetică), şi cum românii sunt mai cu moţ, i-au mai dat  şi denumirea de <strong>RMN</strong> (<strong>R</strong>ezonanţă <strong>M</strong>agnetică <strong>N</strong>ucleară), care-i mai comodă pentru toată lumea. M-am gândit eu să scriu un articol despre tehnologia care a schimbat pentru totdeauna peisajul medicinei.</p>
<p>În ce constă testul ăsta? Se ia una bucată pacient; se îndepărtează orice formă de metal de pe pacient (dacă are metale în el nu se efectuează RMN, şi este trimis la tomograf, altă metoda imagistică despre care vom discuta în alt articol). După ce a rămas doar pacientul şi un hălăţel sumar, se întinde pacientul pe o masă, după care este băgat în cilindrul asta mare şi zgomotos (ca în poză). Undeva un pic mai la distanţă e un oarecare doctor, care pe un monitor vede tot ce este în corpul pacientului din cilindru. Şi când zic tot, ma refer la <strong>TOT</strong>: vase de sânge, nervi, oase, absolut tot. Trebuie doar setat cum trebuie. Tare, nu?</p>
<p>Asta-i suprafaţa acestei minuni tehnologice, care bineînţeles are şi unele dezavantaje pe care le voi expune de-a lungul articolului.. aşa că acum o să intru în detalii tehnice, plictisitoare pentru unii, interesante pentru alţii... ne vedem pe partea ailaltă a articolului...</p>
<p><!--more--></p>
<p>După cum spuneam.. RMN.</p>
<p><strong>Când a apărut RMN-ul?</strong></p>
<p>La data de 3 iulie, în 1977. Atunci s-a efectuat prima scanare de genul acesta pe o fiinţă umană şi obţinerea unei singure imagini a durat aproape 5 ore, iar după standardele din zilele noastre, imaginea a fost catalogată ca fiind deplorabilă. Cam prin 1982 existau cam 5-6 astfel de maşinării pe suprafaţa Statelor Unite. În ziua de azi există mii de astfel de aparate, în toată lumea, şi tehnologia continuă să evolueze. Am reuşit să obţinem în secunde ce iniţial obţineam în ore.</p>
<p><strong>Cine a inventat RMN-ul?</strong></p>
<p>Un anume fizician Dr. Raymond Damadian, împreună cu doi colegi de-ai lui: Dr. Larry Minkoff şi Dr. Michael Goldsmith. Deşi prima apariţie a acestei tehnologii a fost aproape inobservabilă, după 7 ani de muncă şi cercetări intense, aceşti trei oameni au oferit medicinei un pilon extrem de important.</p>
<p><strong>Ce face de fapt scanner-ul RMN?</strong></p>
<p>Păi... cu ajutorul unor impulsuri de energie sub formă de unde radio, scanner-ul vede absolut tot ce se află într-un om, poate determina tipurile de ţesut din el şi poate detecta orice obiect/formaţiune straină, fie ea cât de mică (să zicem că are un diametru de jumătate de milimetru). Scanner-ul RMN, scanează corpul uman strat cu strat, punct cu punct, pentru a crea hărţi 2D sau 3D a ţesuturilor. La urmă pune toate informaţiile la un loc pentru a crea imagini 2D sau modele 3D, foarte utile la diagnosticare.</p>
<p><strong>Cât de bună e o imagine obţinută prin RMN?</strong></p>
<p>Momentan nu există ceva mai bun în intreaga lume, sau cel puţin nu din câte ştie publicul larg. Nivelul de detalii pe care-l poate obţine un astfel de scanner a fost catalogat drept "incomparabil", faţă de celelalte metode de imagistică folosite în medicină. Scanarea prin RMN este o metodă preferată pentru diagnosticarea multor tipuri de afecţiuni, datorită capabilităţii de a oferi un raspuns foarte precis la o întrebare la fel de precisă. Cum se întâmplă asta? Prin schimbarea parametrilor, într-o scanare RMN se pot evidenţia diferite tipuri de ţesuturi cu o precizie uimitoare. Asta îl ajută foarte mult pe radiolog (care interpretează scanările RMN) la diagnosticare, orice anomalie fiind puternic evidenţiată. De asemenea un scanner RMN poate oferi o imagine a fluxului sanguin, oriunde în corp. Asta ne ajută să studiem sistemul arterial fără ţesuturile din jurul său. În cele mai multe cazuri un astfel de scanner poate oferi imagini ale sistemului arterial fără probleme. În radiologia vasculară este nevoie de o injecţie cu un contrastant pentru a evidenţia sângele în "poze". Deşi nu este necesar, unii medici solicită un astfel de contrastant şi pentru RMN-uri.</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><em>Iată şi câteva "poze" obţinute cu ajutorul unui astfel de scanner(gleznă, coloană.. etc).</em></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><a href="http://iulianmd.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/mri3.png"><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-68" src="http://iulianmd.wordpress.com/files/2008/07/mri3.png" alt="" width="497" height="497" /></a></p>
<p style="text-align:center;">
<p style="text-align:left;"><strong>Cât de sigur e un aparat din ăsta?</strong></p>
<p>Scannerele RMN au nişte magneţi extraordinari de puternici. Intensitatea lor se măsoară în nişte unitaţi numite <em>tesla</em>(1 tesla=10.000 gauss). Scannerele din ziua de azi variază de la 0.5 tesla până la 2 tesla (5.000 gauss pâna la 20.000 gauss). În medicină nu exista magneţi mai puternici de 2 tesla, deşi în cercetări se folosesc magneţi de până la 60 tesla. Ca să înţelegeţi mai bine cât de puternici sunt aceşti magneţi, gândiţi-vă că Pământul are un câmp magnetic cu o intensitate de aproximativ 0.5 gauss (2 tesla = 20.000 gauss).</p>
<p>Ce rol a avut explicaţia cu magneţii.. păi închipuiţi-vă că până şi cea mai mică bucăţică de metal reprezintă un pericol pe lângă un aparat din ăsta. Găleţi, aspiratoare, monitoare cardiace şi multe alte obiecte au fost pur si simplu smulse de langă persoane către aparat. Ca să puteţi vedea exact despre ce vorbesc: daţi un <a title="Gugle" href="http://www.google.com">Google</a> pe "MRI Accidents", şi uitaţi-vă la imagini.</p>
<p>Aşa că toţi pacienţii, înainte de a intra în camera scannerului, sunt descotorosiţi de orice formă de metal, iar dacă au metale în ei nu se efectueaza astfel de scanări (obiectele metalice din ei, depinzând de formă, marime şi densitate ar fi efectiv smulse din ei, sau ar vibra în ei cauzând multe multe traume). Totuşi sunt câteva excepţii permise, cum ar fi majoritatea implanturilor ortopedice, care deşi sunt feromagnetice, sunt foarte bine prinse de om, încât or să stea locului. Tot o excepţie constituie şi unele copci metalice, care după aproximativ 6 săptamani pot fi ţinute cu uşurinţă, de ţesutul uman, la locul lor.</p>
<p>Din punct de vedere biologic nu s-a descoperit încă nici un pericol. Totuşi se evită scanarea femeilor însărcinate. Încă nu se ştie cum ar putea afecta un câmp magnetic atât de puternic un fetus în plină dezvoltare. Primul trimestru al sarcinii e critic deoarece e perioada în care fetusul se dezvoltă cel mai mult. Orice scanare după această perioadă se face dupa îndelungi consultări cu un radiolog si un obstetrician, pentru a determina dacă e în siguranţă efectuarea unei scanări. Dacă o doamnă doctor e însarcinată, şi are treaba cu scannerul, ea nu are voie să intre în camera cu aparatul în sine. Poate totuşi supraveghea procesul din anexa de comandă.</p>
<p><strong>Ce magneţi sunt ăştia frate?</strong></p>
<p>La scannerele astea se folosesc 3 tipuri de magneti: magneţi rezistivi, magneţi permanenţi şi <em>magneţi supraconductori. </em>Ca să evit aglomerarea şi mai intensă a articolului o să mă limitez la magneţii supraconductivi. Magneţii supraconductivi sunt similiari magneţilor rezistivi, numai că firele bobinei se află într-o baie de heliu lichid, care are o temperatura de 452 de grade sub 0. Greu de imaginat că întri într-un aparat, şi eşti înconjurat de un lichid atât de rece, dar totuşi adevărat. E foarte bine izolat în schimb, printr-un sistem de vid. De ce e nevoie de heliu lichid şi temperatură în halul ăsta de scăzută? Păi temperatura aia aduce rezistenţa firelor bobinei la 0, ceea ce face aceste sisteme extrem de ieftine de operat. Deşi scannerele cu acest tip de magnet sunt încă foarte scumpe, ele sunt foarte utile, fiind capabile să genereze intensitatea de 2 tesla, cu care se obţin cele mai detaliate şi mai clare imagini.</p>
<p><strong>Are şi dezavantaje RMN-ul?</strong></p>
<p>Da, din păcate are. Oamenii care au aparate numite "Pacemaker"(Google it up), pot fi puşi în pericol. Unii oameni sunt prea dolofani ca să poată fi scanaţi. Şi să nu uităm de efectul claustrofibic pe care îl provoacă spaţiul din interiorul aparatului. Sunt extrem de zomotoase scannerele provocând un sunet de lovitură de ciocan repetat, care poate fi extraordinar de enervant. Majoritatea pacienţilor poartă dopuri de ureche, căşti şi unora li se permite să asculte muzică. Cu cât e mai puternică intensitatea câmpului magnetic, cu atât e mai puternic zgomotul. Cât eşti scanat trebuie să stai absolut nemişcat, iar o scanare durează de la 20 de minute până la 90 de minute, mulţi adormind în interiorul aparatului. Orice mişcare va face imaginea să fie neclară, deci trebuie să stai complet nemişcat. Articole ortopedice (şuruburi, tije, articulaţii artificiale) pot provoca distorsionări în câmpul magnetic. Pentru o imagine cât mai clara câmpul trebuie să fie aproape perfect. Scannerele RMN sunt extrem de scumpe, iar costurile unei scanări sunt, şi ele, extrem de scumpe.</p>
<p>Dar totodată beneficiile acestui tip de aparat depăşesc dezavantajele oferite de el.</p>
<p><strong>Viitorul RMN-ului...</strong></p>
<p>Imaginaţia umană e singura limită în ceea ce priveşte viitorul RMN-ului. Peste tot în lume încep să apară scannere de dimensiuni reduse, în care îţi poţi introduce doar o parte a corpului, specifică (ex: mână, picior, cap).  Se fac cercetări şi în vedera dezvoltării calităţii imaginii. Există şi scannere "deschise" după cum vedeţi în imaginea de mai jos. Nu există limite. Se poate spune că RMN-ul este una din bazele medicinii moderne.</p>
<p><a href="http://iulianmd.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/mri2.png"><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-69" src="http://iulianmd.wordpress.com/files/2008/07/mri2.png" alt="" width="497" height="497" /></a></p>
<p>Sper că a fost un articol plăcut şi interesant pentru toată lumea.</p>
<p>To be continued...</p>
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<item>
<title><![CDATA[Math History on the Internet]]></title>
<link>http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/?p=675</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 2008 21:09:53 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Denise</dc:creator>
<guid>http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/?p=675</guid>
<description><![CDATA[[Image from the MacTutor Archive.]
The story of mathematics is the story of interesting people. What]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/files/2008/06/archimedes.jpeg"><img src="http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/files/2008/06/archimedes.jpeg?w=226" alt="" width="226" height="276" class="left off size-medium wp-image-681" /></a><font size="1"><em>[Image from the <a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Archimedes.html">MacTutor Archive</a>.]</em></font></p>
<p>The story of mathematics is the story of interesting people. What a shame it is that our children see only the dry remains of these people’s passion. By learning math history, our students will see how men and women wrestled with concepts, made mistakes, argued with each other, and gradually developed the knowledge we today take for granted.</p>
<p>In <a href="/2008/06/19/hooray-for-math-history/">a previous article</a>, I recommended books that you may find at your local library or be able to order through inter-library loan. Now, let me introduce you to the wealth of math history resources on the Internet. </p>
<p><!--more--></p>
<p>[These will also be added to my <a href="/free-mostly-math-resources-on-the-internet/">math resources page</a>.]</p>
<h3><a name="mathhistory">Math history on the Internet</a></h3>
<p>Quicklinks for easy browsing:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="#mhvaluable">Most valuable sites</a></li>
<li><a href="#mhgeneral">General resources</a></li>
<li><a href="#mhtopics">Math topics &#38; significant individuals</a></li>
<li><a href="#mhcultures">Specific cultures or time periods</a></li>
<li><a href="#mhelementary">Math history for elementary/middle-school students</a></li>
</ul>
<hr />
<h3><a name="mhvaluable">Math history &#62; Most valuable sites</a></h3>
<p><strong><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/">The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></strong><br />
My favorite place to begin any foray into math history. Highlights include:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/History_overview.html">An Overview of the History of Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/BiogIndex.html">Biographies Index</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/HistoryTopics.html">History Topics Index</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Curves/Curves.html">Famous curves index</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Day_files/Now.html">Mathematicians of the day</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Timelines/index.html">A Time Line of Mathematicians</a></li>
</ul>
<p><strong><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/MpreAndAncient.html">La Habra High School's Math History Timeline</a> </strong><br />
Math discoveries, publications, and other tidbits --- from paleolithic number bones to the present.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/MpreAndAncient.html">Pre-historic and Ancient Times</a> 1,000,000 B.C. - 500 A.D. </li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/MmiddleAges.html">Middle Ages</a> 500 - 1400 A.D.</li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/mRenaissance.html">Renaissance</a> 1400 - 1550 A.D. </li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/mReformation.html">Reformation</a> 1517-1598 A.D. </li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/mBaroque.html">Baroque Era</a> 1600-1700 A.D. </li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/mEnlightenment.html">Enlightenment</a> 1700-1789 A.D. </li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/mRevolutions.html">Age of Revolutions</a> 1789-1848 A.D.</li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/mLiberalism.html">Age of Liberalism</a> 1848-1914 A.D. </li>
<li><a href="http://lahabra.seniorhigh.net/pages/teachers/pages/math/timeline/m20thCentury.html">20th Century ...</a> 1914-present A.D.</li>
</ul>
<p align='right'><a href="#mathhistory">[Back to Math History quicklinks.]</a></p>
<hr />
<h3><a name="mhgeneral">Math history &#62; General resources</a></h3>
<p><strong><a href="http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/topics/Mathematicians.html">Biographies at Wolfram MathWorld</a></strong><br />
Long, long list, and each biography is linked to explanations of the mathematician's major discoveries.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/women.htm">Biographies of Women Mathematicians</a></strong><br />
Indexed alphabetically, chronologically, and by country of birth. Includes modern news tidbits, too.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://math.bu.edu/INDIVIDUAL/jeffs/biblio.html">A Completely Inadequate Bibliography of the History of Mathematics</a></strong><br />
"Most of the following books are aimed at the professional non-mathematician (i.e., someone to whom the land of mathematics is an interesting place to visit, but you wouldn't want to live there)." </p>
<p><strong><a href="http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/">Convergence</a></strong><br />
An online magazine from the MAA: "Where mathematics, history, and teaching interact."</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/people/rickey/hm/default.htm">Fred Rickey's History of Mathematics Page</a></strong><br />
Includes <a href="http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/people/rickey/hm/mini/default.html">Teaching a Course in the History of Mathematics</a> and <a href="http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/people/rickey/hm/inst/teach-hist-biblio.html">An Annotated Bibliography</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/lecturelist.html">Galileo and Einstein: Overview and Lecture Index</a></strong><br />
Lecture notes on the history of math and physics.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/RBallHist.html">Mathematicians of the 17th and 18th Centuries</a></strong><br />
Adapted from <a href="http://astore.amazon.com/letsplaymath-20/detail/0486206300/103-0672877-8960609">A Short Account of the History of Mathematics</a>, by W. W. Rouse Ball.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/">Mathematicians of the African Diaspora</a></strong><br />
Black men and women of mathematics, in history and in the present.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://math.furman.edu/~mwoodard/mqs/mquot.shtml">Mathematical Quotation Server</a></strong><br />
I love quotations! No matter what I want to say, somebody else has probably already said it better.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://mathforum.org/library/topics/history/">Math Forum History Listings</a></strong><br />
"651 items found." No, I have not checked them all. Go browse for yourself!</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.livingmath.net/Mathematicians/tabid/272/language/en-US/Default.aspx">Math History and Mathematicians Pages</a></strong><br />
Julie Brennan at <a href="http://www.livingmath.net/Home/tabid/250/language/en-US/Default.aspx">Living Math</a> is building an index of links to biographical information, famous quotes, activities and book suggestions to accompany a homeschool math history course. [<a href="http://www.livingmath.net/LivingMathPlans/SamplePlans/tabid/445/language/en-US/Default.aspx">Sample lessons</a>.] The last time I visited, she had almost finished the first year's listings. </p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/ph31.htm">Philosophy of Science</a></strong><br />
Many assorted links to readings for a college class, including <a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/ph31a.htm#as">several chapters</a> from <a href="http://astore.amazon.com/letsplaymath-20/detail/1892857073/103-0672877-8960609">String, Straightedge &#38; Shadow</a>.</p>
<p align='right'><a href="#mathhistory">[Back to Math History quicklinks.]</a></p>
<hr />
<h3><a name="mhtopics">Math history &#62; By topic</a></h3>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/">Abacus: The Art of Calculating with Beads</a></strong><br />
The abacus through history, how to make and use an abacus, and classroom ideas.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.cs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html">Archimedes</a></strong><br />
"This site is a collection of Archimedean miscellanea under continual development." See also: <a href="http://itech.fgcu.edu/faculty/clindsey/mhf4404/archimedes/archimedes.html">Archimedes' Approximation of Pi</a>, and <a href="http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/">The Archimedes Palimpsest</a>.<br />
<strong>Edited to add:</strong> <a href="http://betterexplained.com/articles/prehistoric-calculus-discovering-pi/">Prehistoric Calculus: Discovering Pi</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/2977/gauss/english.html">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a></strong><br />
Detailed biography, quotations, and more.</p>
<p><strong>Earliest Known Uses Of Common Mathematical <a href="http://members.aol.com/jeff570/mathsym.html">Symbols</a> and <a href="http://members.aol.com/jeff570/mathword.html">Words</a></strong><br />
Research is ongoing (I found a page that had been modified last week), so don't assume that a citation is the earliest use unless indicated as such.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/elements.html">Euclid’s Elements</a></strong><br />
<a href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/home.html">David E. Joyce</a> brings the text of Euclid's 13 Books to life with Java applets. See also: <a href="http://www.obkb.com/dcljr/euclid.html">An Introduction to the Works of Euclid</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://mathforum.org/isaac/mathhist.html">Famous Problems in the History of Mathematics</a></strong><br />
This site includes problems, paradoxes, and proofs that have inspired mathematicians through the ages, plus links for further exploration.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/8660/title/A_Golden_Sales_Pitch">A Golden Sales Pitch</a></strong><br />
"There is little evidence to suggest that the golden ratio has any special aesthetic appeal... When a myth is repeated over and over, it begins to sound like truth." </p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Measurement.html">The History of Measurement</a></strong><br />
"There were unbelievably many different measurement systems developed in early times, most of them only being used in a small locality."</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.polyamory.org/~howard/Hypatia/">Hypatia of Alexandria</a></strong><br />
Lots of links, including <a href="http://www.polyamory.org/~howard/Hypatia/primary-sources.html">The Primary Sources for the Life and Work of Hypatia of Alexandria</a>. See also: <a href="http://www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/ncctm/activities/hypatia/hypatia.htm">Hypatia, the First Known Woman Mathematician</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Hist_Topics_alph.html">MacTutor Topical Indexes</a></strong></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Algebra.html">Algebra </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Analysis.html">Analysis </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Geometry_Topology.html">Geometry and Topology </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Number_Theory.html">Numbers and Number Theory </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Astronomy.html">Mathematical Astronomy </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Math_Physics.html">Mathematical Physics </a></li>
</ul>
<p><strong><a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Mathematical_games.html">Mathematical games and recreations</a></strong><br />
"The whole history of mathematics is interwoven with mathematical games which have led to the study of many areas of mathematics."</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/hilbert/">The Mathematical Problems of David Hilbert</a></strong><br />
With a link to Hilbert's 1900 address to the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris, surely the most influential speech ever given about mathematics. <a href="http://mathworld.wolfram.com/">Wolfram MathWorld</a> has an <a href="http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HilbertsProblems.html">annotated list of all 23 problems</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.mathpages.com/home/ihistory.htm">MathPages History Topics</a></strong><br />
A wide assortment of tidbits for advanced students.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.oughtred.org/history.shtml">Slide Rule History</a></strong><br />
"The slide rule has a long and distinguished ancestry … from William Oughtred in 1622 to the Apollo missions to the moon."</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibBio.html">Who was Fibonacci?</a></strong><br />
"A brief biographical sketch of Fibonacci, his life, times and mathematical achievements."</p>
<p align='right'><a href="#mathhistory">[Back to Math History quicklinks.]</a></p>
<hr />
<h3><a name="mhcultures">Math history &#62; Cultures or time periods</a></h3>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/index.html">Ancient Africa</a></strong><br />
Part of the <a href="http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/">Mathematicians of the African Diaspora</a> website.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://homepages.bw.edu/~dcalvis/egypt.html">History of Egyptian and Mesopotamian Mathematics Page</a></strong><br />
An excellent resource for my <a href="/alexandria-jones/">Alexandria Jones</a> stories.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Education/index.html">History of Mathematical Education</a></strong><br />
What topics of mathematics have been taught in different cultures and time periods? Why have these changed?</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/HistoryTopics.html">MacTutor Mathematics in Various Cultures</a></strong></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Babylonians.html">Ancient Babylonian mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Egyptians.html">Ancient Egyptian mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Greeks.html">Ancient Greek mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Arabs.html">Arabic mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Chinese.html">Chinese mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Indians.html">Indian mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Mayan_mathematics.html">Mayan mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Americans.html">American mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Indexes/Scots.html">Mathematics in Scotland</a></li>
</ul>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Links/Cultures.html">Mathematics in Specific Cultures, Periods or Places</a></strong><br />
A short collection of links. This site also contains: <a href="http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/Links/">Websites relevant to the History of Mathematics</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/index.html">Mesopotamian Mathematics</a></strong><br />
"From the earliest tokens, through the development of Sumerian mathematics to the grand flowering in the Old Babylonian period, and on..."</p>
<p align='right'><a href="#mathhistory">[Back to Math History quicklinks.]</a></p>
<hr />
<h3><a name="mhelementary">Math history &#62; For elementary/middle-school students</a></h3>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2591">Adding with the Abacus</a></strong><br />
"What did people do to save time working out more difficult problems before the calculator existed?" </p>
<p><strong>Ancient Greek Mathematics</strong><br />
Selections from <a href="http://astore.amazon.com/letsplaymath-20/detail/1892857073/103-0672877-8960609">String, Straightedge &#38; Shadow</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/thales.htm">Chapters 8, 9: Thales</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/pyth1.htm">Chapters 11, 12: Pythagoras and his Theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/pyth2.htm">Chapter 13: Platonic Solids</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/pyth3.htm">Chapter 14: The Irrationals</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/pyth4.htm">Chapter 15: The Golden Mean</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/arch.htm">Chapter 16: Archimedes</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/erat.htm">Chapter 17: Eratosthenes</a></li>
</ul>
<p><strong><a href="http://mooni.fccj.org/~ethall/archmede/archmede.htm">Archimedes &#38; Large Numbers</a></strong><br />
A brief look at Archimedes, Avogadro, and Cantor. See <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/archimedes/pi.html">Approximating Pi</a> for an interactive demonstration.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2494">Calendars</a></strong><br />
"Calendars were one of the earliest calculating devices developed by civilizations." </p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.eyelid.co.uk/numbers.htm">Egyptian Math</a> </strong><br />
Could you survive in the world of Egyptian numerals and mathematics? [Note to teachers: <a href="http://shop.discoveringegypt.com/worksheet1.html">The Egyptian Math Worksheet Creator</a> looks like fun!]</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.faust.fr.bw.schule.de/mhb/eratosiv.htm">Eratosthenes' sieve</a></strong><br />
Click on any number, and all its multiples (except the number itself) will disappear from the chart. See also: <a href="http://www.murderousmaths.co.uk/games/primcal.htm">Murderous Maths Prime Numbers Page</a>. </p>
<p><strong><a href="http://physics.weber.edu/carroll/Archimedes/default.htm">Eureka!  The Achievements of Archimedes</a></strong><br />
Click "next" to read the pages one by one, or browse through the <a href="http://physics.weber.edu/carroll/Archimedes/theIndex.htm">Index</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://mathforum.org/isaac/mathhist.html">Famous Problems in the History of Mathematics</a></strong><br />
This site includes problems, paradoxes, and proofs that have inspired mathematicians through the ages, plus links for further exploration.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.crews.org/curriculum/math/Fibonacci/activities.htm">Fibonacci Activities</a></strong><br />
For explanations and more fun, see: <a href="http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html">Fibonacci Numbers and Nature</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.gnarlymath.com/news/gnews1_1.html">Solid Gold Gnarly Math: The Gnarly Gnews</a></strong><br />
Free bi-monthly newsletter of math history with a twist of humor.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2515">History of Fractions</a></strong><br />
"Did you know that fractions as we use them today didn't exist in Europe until the 17th century?"</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2434">History of Measurement</a></strong><br />
To work effectively and share goods fairly, people had to find ways to measure their stuff. See also: <a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2568">Measure for Measure</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://mathforum.org/alejandre/frisbie/math/student.leonardo.html">Leonardo da Vinci Activity</a></strong><br />
"Is the ratio of our arm span to our height really equal to 1?" See also: <a href="http://mathforum.org/alejandre/frisbie/math/leonardo.html">Teacher Lesson Plan</a> and <a href="http://leonardodavinci.stanford.edu/submissions/clabaugh/history/leonardo.html">Leonardo's Vitruvian Man</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=5747">Negative Numbers</a></strong><br />
"Among the earliest people to use negative numbers in calculations were the ancient Chinese." See also: <a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=5961">The History of Negative Numbers</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://mathforum.org/workshops/usi/pascal/">Pascal's Triangle</a></strong><br />
Lessons and links for all grade levels. See also: <a href="http://ptri1.tripod.com/">All You Ever Wanted to Know About Pascal's Triangle</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2490">Pi, a Very Special Number</a></strong><br />
Over the centuries, mathematicians kept looking for better values for pi. </p>
<p><strong><a href="http://www.mathsisfun.com/platonic_solids.html">Platonic Solids</a></strong><br />
With printable nets, so you can make your own models. Part of the wonderful <a href="http://www.mathsisfun.com/">Maths is Fun</a> site --- take some time to explore!</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2721">Pythagoras</a></strong><br />
"Pythagoras believed that everything in the world could be explained by numbers." See also: <a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2572">All Is Number</a>.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/4116/History/history.htm">ThinkQuest History of Mathematics</a></strong><br />
Brief overview of math history, with biographies of influential mathematicians and short online quizzes.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=5748">Women in Maths</a></strong><br />
"Ever wondered why stories about mathematicians always seem to be about men? ...There were a few women who dared to go against the flow." </p>
<p align='right'><a href="#mathhistory">[Back to Math History quicklinks.]</a></p>
<hr />
<p><a href="http://www.stumbleupon.com/submit?url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/&#38;title=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/stumbleit.gif" alt="Stumble It!" /></a> :: <a href="http://del.icio.us/post?url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;title=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/delicious.gif" alt="add to del.icio.us" /></a> :: <a href="http://digg.com/submit?phase=2&#38;url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/digg.gif" alt="Digg it" /></a> :: <a href="http://reddit.com/submit?url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;title=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/reddit.gif" /></a> :: <a href="http://www.blinklist.com/index.php?Action=Blink/addblink.php&#38;Description=&#38;Url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;Title=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/blinklist.gif" alt="Add to Blinkslist" /></a> :: <a href="http://www.furl.net/storeIt.jsp?u=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;t=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/furl.gif" alt="add to furl" /></a> :: <a href="http://ma.gnolia.com/bookmarklet/add?url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;title=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/magnolia.gif" alt="add to ma.gnolia" /></a> :: <a href="http://www.simpy.com/simpy/LinkAdd.do?url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;title=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/simpy.png" alt="add to simpy" /></a> :: <a href="http://www.newsvine.com/_tools/seed&#38;save?url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;title=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/newsvine.gif" alt="seed the vine" /></a> :: <a href="http://cgi.fark.com/cgi/fark/edit.pl?new_url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/;new_comment=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2006/11/fark.png" /></a> :: <a href="http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/&#38;t=Math History on the Internet"><img src="http://sunburntkamel.wordpress.com/files/2008/02/facebookcom.gif" alt="post to facebook" /></a> ::  <a href="http://www.mixx.com/submit?page_url=http://letsplaymath.wordpress.com/2008/06/27/math-history-on-the-internet/"><img src="http://www.mixx.com/images/buttons/mixx-button4.png" alt="Add to Mixx!" /></a></p>
<hr />
<strong>Have more fun on <em>Let's Play Math!</em> blog:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/2007/08/30/a-very-short-history-of-mathematics/">A Very Short History of Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/2008/06/19/hooray-for-math-history/">Hooray for (Math) History</a></li>
<li><a href="/2008/05/27/ancient-mathematical-crisis/">An Ancient Mathematical Crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/2008/04/12/puzzling-pythagorean-pebbles/">The Puzzling Pythagorean Pebbles</a></li>
<li><a href="/2008/02/05/the-secret-of-egyptian-fractions/">The secret of Egyptian fractions</a></li>
</ul>
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<title><![CDATA[56 16 24 40 50]]></title>
<link>http://anamazingnumber.wordpress.com/?p=3</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 19 Jun 2008 20:13:05 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>anamazingnumber</dc:creator>
<guid>http://anamazingnumber.wordpress.com/?p=3</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Well I was bored and playing with a calculator.
Do 561624949 if you add them all up you get 33
Do it]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Well I was bored and playing with a calculator.</p>
<p>Do 561624949 if you add them all up you get 33</p>
<p>Do it again but multiply and you get 218880</p>
<p>Amazing is all I can say.</p>
<p> </p>
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<title><![CDATA[Quesito 2, Fisica 2]]></title>
<link>http://disphy.wordpress.com/?p=25</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 17 Jun 2008 08:35:10 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>mlr</dc:creator>
<guid>http://disphy.wordpress.com/?p=25</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Una sfera di raggio R_1 ha una cavita&#8217; centrale concentrica di raggio R_2. Una carica q e]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Una sfera di raggio R_1 ha una cavita' centrale concentrica di raggio R_2. Una carica q e' distribuita uniformemente entro il suo volume. Calcolare il campo elettrico ed il potenziale elettrico in tutto lo spazio.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[西遊記 - Xi you ji (Viatge a occident)]]></title>
<link>http://gaussmonster.wordpress.com/?p=7</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 01 Jun 2008 13:40:53 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>gaussmonster</dc:creator>
<guid>http://gaussmonster.wordpress.com/?p=7</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Diari d&#8217;abord 1231241,213§∆ 

Aprofitant l&#8217;estrena fa unes setmanes de &#8220;The Fo]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align:center;">Diari d'abord 1231241,213§∆ </p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img class="alignnone" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/JourneytotheWest.jpg" alt="Antiga pintura amb tots els personatges" width="400" height="170" /></p>
<p>Aprofitant l'estrena fa unes setmanes de "<a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0865556/" target="_self">The Forbidden Kingrom</a>" de la qual podem dir que no és gaire dolenta tot i ser americana (com podria ser comparant-la amb Iron Monkey <a href="http://youtube.com/watch?v=CqS3PSs71G8">(trailer)</a> ), he decidit explicar on s'ha inspirat la pel·lícula.</p>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_You_Ji" target="_blank">Xi you ji</a> ( traduït usualment com Peregrinació / Viatge a occident) és un dels Quatre Grans Clàssics de la literatura xinesa. Va ser publicat vora el 1590 (dinastia<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" target="_blank"> Ming</a>) anònimament, però ha estat atribuït a  <a title="Wu Cheng'en" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Cheng%27en" target="_blank">Wú Chéng'ēn</a>.</p>
<p>La història té un rerefons filosòfic i religiós molt profund, tot i ser una gran historia d'aventures recomano a tothom que vulgui que la llegeixi (unes 1800 pàgines, evidentment encara no me l'he acabat).</p>
<p>La historia us sonarà per el Rei Mico <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Wukong" target="_blank">Sun Wukong</a> ( <span lang="zh-Hans">孙悟空 -Mico Conscient del Buit) tot i que és el personatge principal la història tracta de com el monge </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang">Xuánzàng</a> (<span lang="zh">玄奘)</span> peregrina fins a la India en busca de les santes escriptures amb els seus tres deixebles i protectors Sun Wukong, <a href="http://http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Bajie" target="_blank">Zhu Bajie</a> (豬八戒 - Porc amb Vuit Prohibicions, tot i que també te un nom amb Wu) i <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sha_Wujing" target="_blank">Sha Wujing</a> (沙悟凈 - Sorra Conscient de la puresa), castigats per crims fa molt de temps i que busquen guanyar-se la redempció, igual que el caball que en realitat és un prindep drac transformat.</p>
<p>Aquesta història ha influit a tota àsia, de manera que són molt comunes les adaptacions en series, dibuixos animats i d'altres. De fet el personatge del Rei mico inspirà clarament a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akira_Toriyama" target="_blank">Akira Toriyama</a> per a Son Goku, de fet fins i tot el nom, a més de l'Oolong. Altres referencies importants son la serie chinesa clàssica de fa unes decades, mitjans dels 80.</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/nrzTxGZrV0Q'></param><param name='wmode' value='transparent'></param><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/nrzTxGZrV0Q&rel=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' wmode='transparent' width='425' height='350'></embed></object></span></p>
<p>O la delirant paròdia de Stephen Chow (director i protagonista de KungFu Sion)</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/NFzdJy9fOfA'></param><param name='wmode' value='transparent'></param><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/NFzdJy9fOfA&rel=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' wmode='transparent' width='425' height='350'></embed></object></span></p>
<p>També recomenar una pelicula de dibuixos animats xinesa que narra els primers capitols de la historia, és a dir, com Sun Wukong proboca un gran terrabastall al cel (<a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0059855/" target="_blank">Da Nao Tian</a>g - 大鬧天宮 - 1960's)</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/lXUsvPvLUKw'></param><param name='wmode' value='transparent'></param><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/lXUsvPvLUKw&rel=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' wmode='transparent' width='425' height='350'></embed></object></span></p>
<p>a més d'adaptacións japoneses varies.</p>
<p>Espero que os sigui tant interesant com jo crec.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Rudi Dutschke]]></title>
<link>http://jazariel.wordpress.com/?p=175</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 24 May 2008 12:53:23 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>jazariel</dc:creator>
<guid>http://jazariel.wordpress.com/?p=175</guid>
<description><![CDATA[

Weitere Details auf Wikipedia
]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align:center;"><img class="aligncenter" style="vertical-align:middle;" src="http://img155.imageshack.us/img155/4139/dutschketk9.jpg" alt="Rudi Dutschke" width="608" height="363" /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/PVOBc2US23w'></param><param name='wmode' value='transparent'></param><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/PVOBc2US23w&rel=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' wmode='transparent' width='425' height='350'></embed></object></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;">Weitere Details auf <a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudi_Dutschke" target="_blank">Wikipedia</a></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Concert Pictures from Mebuyan]]></title>
<link>http://zamboangathemovie.wordpress.com/?p=115</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 16 May 2008 22:49:37 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>cfca</dc:creator>
<guid>http://zamboangathemovie.wordpress.com/?p=115</guid>
<description><![CDATA[CLICK HERE for a great page of photos from the concert, thanks to Gauss from Mebuyan!
]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="http://gaussobenza.multiply.com/photos/album/94/Zamboanga_Concert">CLICK HERE</a> for a great page of photos from the concert, thanks to Gauss from Mebuyan!</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Jumlah Deret Aritmatika]]></title>
<link>http://panghalusnya.wordpress.com/?p=83</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 13 May 2008 23:31:35 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>panghalusnya</dc:creator>
<guid>http://panghalusnya.wordpress.com/?p=83</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Salah satu hal yang paling saya sesali dalam perjalanan saya menimba ilmu dari SD hingga bangku kuli]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align:justify;">Salah satu hal yang paling saya sesali dalam perjalanan saya menimba ilmu dari SD hingga bangku kuliah adalah saya lebih sering menghafal daripada memahami. Dan akibatnya selain saya tidak menikmati pencarian ilmu itu sendiri, ketika saya membutuhkan formula untuk menyelesaikan suatu permasalahan dan saya sudah melupakan formula tersebut, saya tidak punya clue sedikitpun untuk merekontruksi kembali, karena memang sejak awal saya tidak pernah memahaminya. Andai waktu bisa berulang kembali.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Jika kita pernah membaca sejarah tokoh-tokoh penemu terdahulu, begitulah cara mereka bekerja. Mereka tidak menerima segala sesuatunya secara instan. Mereka benar-benar berusaha memahaminya terlebih dahulu. Logika mereka bekerja.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Jika kita disuruh menjumlahkan bilangan 1 hingga 100, maka jika anda termasuk orang yang tidak mau ambil pusing maka anda akan mengambil kalkulator. Jika anda orang yang memiliki hafalan yang kuat dan nilai matematika yang bagus, maka ada akan menggunakan rumus [(n+1)(n)]/2. Namun jika anda orang yang paham, maka anda cukup memejamkan mata sebentar.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Untuk orang tukang hafal, ketika soal berubah 'jumlahkan deret bilangan 78, 81, 84, 87, ... ,141' maka saya yakin mereka akan sedikit kebingungan. Tapi bagi orang yang paham, masih cukup dengan memejamkan mata (atau paling jauh adalah dengan membuat sedikit coretan).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Kenapa bisa begitu? Karena meraka paham bagaimana asal rumus jumlah deret.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Flashback sejenak pada masa kecil Pak Gauss (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" target="_blank">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>). Pada saat duduk dibangku sekolah dasar, Gauss kecil dan teman-teman sekelasnya diberi tugas oleh gurunya untuk menjumlahkan bilangan bulat dari 1 hingga 100. Saat Pak Guru berkata 'mulai!', semua siswa tampak sibuk untuk menjumlahkan bilangan. Pak Guru pun mengawasi anak didiknya satu persatu. Hingga matanya mengarah pada Gauss kecil. Dan Pak Guru melihat Gauss kecil tidak melakukan apapun.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Ketika ditanya Gauss kecil menjawab, "Sudah selasai,Pak."</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">"Berapa jawabannya, Gauss?", Pak Guru bertanya heran.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Gauss kecil menjawab, "5050"</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Pak Guru yang sangat tidak percaya karena tidak mungkin menyelesaikan perhitungan sedemikian banyaknya hanya dalam waktu beberapa detik kecuali berbuat kecurangan mendatangi meja Gauss kecil.  Dan kemudian melihat coretan kecil dibukunya :</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a href="http://panghalusnya.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/series.jpg"><img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-84" src="http://panghalusnya.wordpress.com/files/2008/05/series.jpg?w=300" alt="" width="300" height="219" /></a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Ternyata Gauus kecil menjumlahkan dua deret sekaligus namun dibalik penyusunannya. Dan hasil penjumlahan tiap-tiap sukunya adalah sama yaitu 101. Dan jika ada seratus suku, bukankah hanya tinggal mengalikan dengan 100. Dan hasilnya tinggal dibagi dua untuk mendapatkan jumlahan untuk satu deret.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Jika kita memahami asal usulnya, segala sesuatu tampaknya lebih mudah untuk diingat. Untuk apapun itu.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Sehingga menjawab pertanyaan tadi, "Jumlahkan deret bilangan 78, 81, 84, 87, ... ,141", cukup dengan membuat coretan (jika kemampuan penguasaan menerawang angka cukup lemah) :</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">78 + 141 = 219 (tiap suku)</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">[ ( 141 - 78 ) / 3 ] + 1 = 22 (jumlah suku)   *karena beda = 3</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Sehingga jumlah deret adalah ( 219 x 22 ) / 2 = 2409</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Kalau tidak percaya bisa dihitung secara manual :)</p>
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<title><![CDATA[1777-1855 GAUSS.Carl.Friedrich]]></title>
<link>http://aleaje.wordpress.com/?p=43</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 10 May 2008 07:48:54 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>BOUCHET Jean-Louis</dc:creator>
<guid>http://aleaje.wordpress.com/?p=43</guid>
<description><![CDATA[
1777-1855 GAUSS.Carl.Friedrich

Source : http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss
 

Carl]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div style="border:windowtext 1pt solid;padding:1pt 4pt;">
<h1 style="text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;color:#000000;font-family:Arial;">1777-1855 GAUSS.Carl.Friedrich</span></h1>
</div>
<p><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Source : <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss">http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss</a></span></p>
<p> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;margin:0;" align="center">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:center;margin:0;" align="center"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Carl Friedrich Gauß.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Johann Carl Friedrich Gauß</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> <span class="audio"><a title="De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg"><span style="color:#000000;">De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg</span></a></span> <span class="plainlinks"><a title="http://tools.wikimedia.de/~gmaxwell/jorbis/commonsJOrbisPlayer.php?path=De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg" href="http://tools.wikimedia.de/~gmaxwell/jorbis/commonsJOrbisPlayer.php?path=De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg"><span style="color:#000000;">écouter</span></a></span> (traditionnellement transcrit <span>Gauss</span> en français) (<a title="30 avril" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_avril"><span style="color:#000000;">30 avril</span></a> <a title="1777" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1777"><span style="color:#000000;">1777</span></a> — <a title="23 février" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/23_f%C3%A9vrier"><span style="color:#000000;">23 février</span></a> <a title="1855" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1855"><span style="color:#000000;">1855</span></a>) est un <a title="Mathématicien" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math%C3%A9maticien"><span style="color:#000000;">mathématicien</span></a>, <a title="Astronome" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronome"><span style="color:#000000;">astronome</span></a> et <a title="Physicien" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicien"><span style="color:#000000;">physicien</span></a> <a title="Allemagne" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allemagne"><span style="color:#000000;">allemand</span></a>. Doté d'un grand génie, il a apporté de très importantes contributions à ces trois sciences. Surnommé « le prince des mathématiciens », il est considéré comme l'un des plus grands mathématiciens de tous les temps.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">La qualité extraordinaire de ses travaux scientifiques était déjà reconnue par ses contemporains. Dès <a title="1856" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1856"><span style="color:#000000;">1856</span></a>, le roi de Hanovre fit graver des pièces commémoratives avec l'image de Gauss et l'inscription <span>Mathematicorum Principi</span> (« prince des mathématiciens » en <a title="Latin" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"><span style="color:#000000;">latin</span></a>). Gauss n'ayant publié qu'une partie infime de ses découvertes, la postérité découvrit la profondeur et l'étendue de son œuvre uniquement lorsque son journal intime, publié en <a title="1898" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1898"><span style="color:#000000;">1898</span></a>, fut découvert et exploité.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Considéré par beaucoup comme distant et austère, Gauss ne travailla jamais comme professeur de mathématiques, détestait enseigner et collabora rarement avec d'autres mathématiciens. Malgré cela, plusieurs de ses étudiants devinrent de grands mathématiciens, notamment <a title="Richard Dedekind" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dedekind"><span style="color:#000000;">Richard Dedekind</span></a> et <a title="Bernhard Riemann" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann"><span style="color:#000000;">Bernhard Riemann</span></a>.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Gauss était profondément pieux et conservateur. Il soutint la monarchie et s'opposa à <a title="Napoléon Bonaparte" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte"><span style="color:#000000;">Napoléon</span></a> qu'il vit comme un semeur de révolution.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Famille"></a></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Famille</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Son grand-père paternel</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Paysan pauvre, venu s'établir à Brunswick où il avait un modeste emploi de jardinier. Il eut 3 fils, dont Gerhard, père du mathématicien, fut le deuxième. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Son grand-père maternel</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Tailleur de pierres, il mourut à 30 ans de la tuberculose. Il eut deux enfants : l'ainée Dorothea, la mère du mathématicien, et le cadet, Friedrich, tisserand. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Ses parents</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Modestes et de peu d'instruction, ils se sont mariés en 1776 : </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Gerhard Dietrich (né en 1744, mort le 14 avril <a title="1808" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1808"><span style="color:#000000;">1808</span></a>), jardinier, gardien de canal et briqueteur </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Dorothea Gauß, née Benze (née en 1742, morte le 19 avril <a title="1839" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1839"><span style="color:#000000;">1839</span></a> à <a title="Göttingen" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen"><span style="color:#000000;">Göttingen</span></a>). Elle vint à Brunswick en 1769. Elle passa les vingt dernières années de sa vie dans la maison de son fils. Elle devint aveugle en 1835. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Sa première femme</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Johanna Elisabeth Rosina Osthoff (<a title="1780" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1780"><span style="color:#000000;">1780</span></a>-<a title="1809" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1809"><span style="color:#000000;">1809</span></a>). Le mariage eut lieu le 9 octobre 1805. Ils eurent trois enfants : </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Joseph</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_note-0#cite_note-0"><span class="citecrochet1"><span style="color:#000000;">[</span></span><span style="color:#000000;">1<span class="citecrochet1"><span>]</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> (21 août <a title="1806" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1806"><span style="color:#000000;">1806</span></a>-<a title="1873" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1873"><span style="color:#000000;">1873</span></a>), </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Wilhelmina (<a title="1808" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1808"><span style="color:#000000;">1808</span></a>- 12 août <a title="1840" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1840"><span style="color:#000000;">1840</span></a>). De tous les enfants de Gauss, elle était la plus prédisposée à avoir du génie, mais mourut jeune. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Louis (11 octobre <a title="1809" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1809"><span style="color:#000000;">1809</span></a>- 1</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">er</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> mars <a title="1810" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1810"><span style="color:#000000;">1810</span></a>). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Sa deuxième femme</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Friederica Wilhelmine Waldeck, « Minna » (<a title="1788" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788"><span style="color:#000000;">1788</span></a> - 12 septembre <a title="1831" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1831"><span style="color:#000000;">1831</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_note-1#cite_note-1"><span class="citecrochet1"><span style="color:#000000;">[</span></span><span style="color:#000000;">2<span class="citecrochet1"><span>]</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">). Le mariage eut lieu le 4 août 1810. Ils eurent trois enfants : </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Eugen (29 juillet <a title="1811" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1811"><span style="color:#000000;">1811</span></a>-<a title="1896" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896"><span style="color:#000000;">1896</span></a>). Il émigra aux <a title="États-Unis" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tats-Unis"><span style="color:#000000;">États-Unis</span></a> en <a title="1832" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1832"><span style="color:#000000;">1832</span></a> environ, après une discorde avec son père, pour se retrouver finalement à <a title="Saint Charles (Missouri)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Charles_%28Missouri%29"><span style="color:#000000;">Saint-Charles</span></a>, dans le <a title="Missouri (État)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_%28%C3%89tat%29"><span style="color:#000000;">Missouri</span></a>, où il devint un membre respecté de la communauté. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Wilhelm (octobre <a title="1813" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1813"><span style="color:#000000;">1813</span></a>-<a title="1883" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1883"><span style="color:#000000;">1883</span></a>). Il vint s'installer dans le <a title="Missouri (État)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_%28%C3%89tat%29"><span style="color:#000000;">Missouri</span></a>, commença comme fermier, se lança dans la vente de chaussures à <a title="Saint Louis (Missouri)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Louis_%28Missouri%29"><span style="color:#000000;">Saint Louis</span></a> et devint riche. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Therese (Juin <a title="1816" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1816"><span style="color:#000000;">1816</span></a>-<a title="1864" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1864"><span style="color:#000000;">1864</span></a>). À la mort de sa mère en 1831, elle resta à la maison jusqu'à la mort de Gauss, et se maria après. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Biographie"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Biographie</span></span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1777</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Gauss naît le 30 avril à <a title="Brunswick (ville)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunswick_%28ville%29"><span style="color:#000000;">Brunswick</span></a>, dans le duché de Brunswick (aujourd'hui en <a title="Allemagne" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allemagne"><span style="color:#000000;">Allemagne</span></a>, alors dans le royaume de <a title="Hanovre" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanovre"><span style="color:#000000;">Hanovre</span></a>).</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1780</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Enfant prodige, il apprend seul à lire et à compter à l'âge de trois ans. <span class="needref">À cet âge, il corrige son père qui s'est trompé en payant une addition.</span> <a title="Référence nécessaire/Explication" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le:R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_n%C3%A9cessaire/Explication"><span style="color:#000000;">[réf. nécessaire]</span></a></span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">À l'école, il impressionne très tôt ses professeurs.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Anecdote célèbre : son professeur voulant occuper ses élèves agités, leur demande de « calculer la somme de tous les nombres de 1 à 100 ». Pendant que les autres s'affairent à l'addition effective des 100 nombres, le jeune Gauss fournit la réponse correcte en quelques secondes ! Il a astucieusement additionné les nombres extrêmes par paires, remarquant que les <span>50</span> sommes donnent toutes le même résultat <span>101</span> : 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101, 3 + 98 = 101, etc., 50 + 51 = 101. D'où le résultat demandé, grâce à une seule multiplication : 50 × 101 = 5050. </span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1792</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Le duc de Brunswick remarque ses aptitudes et lui accorde une bourse afin de lui permettre de poursuivre son instruction.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1792-1795</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Il est envoyé au Caroline College, où il suit notamment les cours de l'entomologiste <a title="Johann Christian Ludwig Hellwig" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Christian_Ludwig_Hellwig"><span style="color:#000000;">Johann Christian Ludwig Hellwig</span></a> (1743-1831). Dans cette période, il formule la <a title="Méthode des moindres carrés" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9thode_des_moindres_carr%C3%A9s"><span style="color:#000000;">méthode des moindres carrés</span></a> et une conjecture sur la répartition des <a title="Nombre premier" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nombre_premier"><span style="color:#000000;">nombres premiers</span></a>, conjecture qui sera prouvée un siècle plus tard<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_note-2#cite_note-2"><span class="citecrochet1"><span style="color:#000000;">[</span></span><span style="color:#000000;">3<span class="citecrochet1"><span>]</span></span></span></a>. Gauss acquiert pendant toute sa scolarité une très grande érudition. Et à l'université, il démontre à nouveau, indépendamment, des théorèmes importants.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1796</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Gauss fait une grande percée, en caractérisant presque complètement tous les polygones réguliers <a title="Construction à la règle et au compas" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_%C3%A0_la_r%C3%A8gle_et_au_compas"><span style="color:#000000;">constructibles à la règle et au compas</span></a> uniquement (<a title="Théorème de Gauss-Wantzel" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_de_Gauss-Wantzel"><span style="color:#000000;">Théorème de Gauss-Wantzel</span></a>), et complétant ainsi le travail commencé par les mathématiciens de l'Antiquité grecque. Satisfait de ce résultat, il demande qu'un polygone régulier de 17 côtés soit gravé sur son tombeau.<span> </span></span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1796. Il est le premier à démontrer rigoureusement le <a title="Théorème de d'Alembert-Gauss" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_de_d%27Alembert-Gauss"><span style="color:#000000;">théorème fondamental de l'algèbre</span></a><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_note-3#cite_note-3"><span class="citecrochet1"><span style="color:#000000;">[</span></span><span style="color:#000000;">4<span class="citecrochet1"><span>]</span></span></span></a>. </span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1801</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Publication de <em><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><a title="Disquisitiones arithmeticae" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disquisitiones_arithmeticae"><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="color:#000000;">Disquisitiones arithmeticae</span></span></a>,</span></em> qui contient un exposé très clair sur l'<a title="Arithmétique modulaire" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithm%C3%A9tique_modulaire"><span style="color:#000000;">arithmétique modulaire</span></a>, et qui apporte d'importantes avancées en <a title="Théorie des nombres" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_des_nombres"><span style="color:#000000;">théorie des nombres</span></a>, notamment la première preuve de la <a title="Loi de réciprocité quadratique" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_de_r%C3%A9ciprocit%C3%A9_quadratique"><span style="color:#000000;">loi de réciprocité quadratique</span></a>. </span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1801. Soutenu par des traites du Duc de Brunswick, il n'apprécie pas l'instabilité de cet arrangement, ne croyant pas que les mathématiques soient assez importantes pour mériter une telle aide. </span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1804</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Le 12 avril, il est élu membre de la <a title="Royal Society" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"><span style="color:#000000;">Royal Society</span></a>.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1805</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Premier mariage, avec Johanna Osthoff, le 9 octobre.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1807</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Il opte finalement pour une place dans l'astronomie. Il est nommé professeur d'astronomie et directeur de l'observatoire astronomique de <a title="Göttingen" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen"><span style="color:#000000;">Göttingen</span></a>.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1809</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Il publie un travail d'une importance capitale sur le mouvement des <a title="Corps céleste" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corps_c%C3%A9leste"><span style="color:#000000;">corps célestes</span></a> qui contient le développement de la <a title="Méthode des moindres carrés" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9thode_des_moindres_carr%C3%A9s"><span style="color:#000000;">méthode des moindres carrés</span></a>, une procédure utilisée depuis, dans toutes les sciences, pour minimiser l'impact d'une erreur de mesure. Il prouve l'exactitude de la méthode dans l'hypothèse d'erreurs <a title="Loi normale" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_normale"><span style="color:#000000;">normalement distribuées</span></a><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_note-4#cite_note-4"><span class="citecrochet1"><span style="color:#000000;">[</span></span><span style="color:#000000;">5<span class="citecrochet1"><span>]</span></span></span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1809.Mort précoce de sa première femme qu'il aimait, Johanna Osthoff, suivie de près par la mort de l'un de ses enfants, Louis. Gauss plonge dans une dépression, dont il ne sortira jamais entièrement. </span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1810</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">.Deuxième mariage, avec « Minna » Waldeck, le 4 août. Ce mariage ne semble pas avoir été très heureux. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span><img src="/DOCUME~1/JLB/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image001.gif" alt="*" width="4" height="11" /><span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1810.Gauss découvre la possibilité de <a title="Géométrie non-euclidienne" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie_non-euclidienne"><span style="color:#000000;">géométries non-euclidiennes</span></a> mais ne publiera jamais ce travail<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_note-5#cite_note-5"><span class="citecrochet1"><span style="color:#000000;">[</span></span><span style="color:#000000;">6<span class="citecrochet1"><span>]</span></span></span></a>. </span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="1818" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1818"><span style="color:#000000;">1818</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Gauss commence une étude géodésique de l'État de Hanovre, travail qui mènera au développement des <a title="Loi normale" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_normale"><span style="color:#000000;">distributions normales</span></a> pour décrire les erreurs de mesure et qui comporte un intérêt dans la <a title="Géométrie différentielle" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie_diff%C3%A9rentielle"><span style="color:#000000;">géométrie différentielle</span></a>. Son <a title="Theorema egregrium" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorema_egregrium"><span style="color:#000000;">theorema egregrium</span></a> permit d'établir une propriété importante de la notion de courbure.</span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="1831" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1831"><span style="color:#000000;">1831</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">.Une collaboration fructueuse avec le professeur de physique <a title="Wilhelm Weber" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Weber"><span style="color:#000000;">Wilhelm Weber</span></a> aboutit à des résultats sur le <a title="Magnétisme" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magn%C3%A9tisme"><span style="color:#000000;">magnétisme</span></a> qui sont à l'origine de la découverte des <a title="Lois de Kirchhoff" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois_de_Kirchhoff"><span style="color:#000000;">lois de Kirchhoff</span></a> en électricité, et mène à la construction d'un télégraphe primitif. Il est également l'auteur de deux des quatre <a title="Équations de Maxwell" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89quations_de_Maxwell"><span style="color:#000000;">équations de Maxwell</span></a>, qui constituent une théorie globale de l'électromagnétisme. La loi de Gauss pour les champs électriques exprime qu'une charge électrique crée un champ électrique divergeant. Sa loi pour les champs magnétiques énonce qu'un champ magnétique divergent vaut 0, c'est-à-dire qu'il n'existe pas de monopôle magnétique. Les lignes de champ sont donc obligatoirement fermées. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span><img src="http://aleaje.wordpress.com/wp-admin/PicExportError" alt="*" width="11" height="11" /><span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1831.Mort de sa deuxième femme après une longue maladie. Sa fille Therese prend en main les tâches ménagères et s'occupera de Gauss jusqu'à la fin de sa vie. </span></p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">1855</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. Le 23 février, il meurt à <a title="Göttingen" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen"><span style="color:#000000;">Göttingen</span></a>, <a title="Hanovre" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanovre"><span style="color:#000000;">Hanovre</span></a> (Allemagne). Il est enterré au cimetière de <span>Albanifriedhof</span>.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Reconnaissance"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Reconnaissance</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Prix"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Prix</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Prix Lalande" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_Lalande"><span style="color:#000000;">Prix Lalande</span></a>, <a title="Académie des sciences" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences"><span style="color:#000000;">Académie des sciences</span></a>, France, <a title="1810" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1810"><span style="color:#000000;">1810</span></a>, </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Médaille Copley" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9daille_Copley"><span style="color:#000000;">Médaille Copley</span></a>, <a title="Royal Society" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"><span style="color:#000000;">Société royale de Londres</span></a>, <a title="1838" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1838"><span style="color:#000000;">1838</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="T.C3.A9moignages"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Témoignages</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="G. Waldo Dunnington (page inexistante)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=G._Waldo_Dunnington&#38;action=edit&#38;redlink=1"><span style="color:#000000;">G. Waldo Dunnington</span></a>, <span>Carl Frederick Gauss : Le Titan de la Science.<span> L'auteur</span><span> de cette biographie fut pendant toute sa vie un élève de Gauss. Il écrivit de nombreux articles, et cette biographie. </span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Fictions"></a><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Fictions</span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span><span class="editsection10"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">[<a title="Fictions" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&#38;action=edit&#38;section=6"><span style="color:#000000;">modifier</span></a>]</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Daniel Kehlmann" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kehlmann"><span style="color:#000000;">Daniel Kehlmann</span></a>, <span><a title="Les arpenteurs du monde" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_arpenteurs_du_monde"><span style="color:#000000;">Les arpenteurs du monde</span></a></span>, trad. Juliette Aubert, Actes Sud, 2007, 298 p. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Biographie romancée et croisée de Carl Friedrich Gauss et <a title="Alexander von Humboldt" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt"><span style="color:#000000;">Alexander von Humboldt</span></a>.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Portraits.2C_statues"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Portraits, statues</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Un buste de Gauss, dont l'auteur est le sculpteur <a title="Georg Arfmann (page inexistante)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georg_Arfmann&#38;action=edit&#38;redlink=1"><span style="color:#000000;">Georg Arfmann</span></a>, est exposé au temple <a title="Walhalla (bâtiment)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walhalla_%28b%C3%A2timent%29"><span style="color:#000000;">Walhalla</span></a> depuis le 12 septembre 2007. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Utilisation_du_nom_de_Gauss"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Utilisation du nom de Gauss</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">L'<a title="Astéroïde" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ast%C3%A9ro%C3%AFde"><span style="color:#000000;">astéroïde</span></a> <a title="(1001) Gaussia" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%281001%29_Gaussia"><span style="color:#000000;">(1001) Gaussia</span></a> a été nommé en son honneur. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">L'unité de l'induction magnétique dans l'ancien système d'unités de mesure <a title="CGS" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGS"><span style="color:#000000;">CGS</span></a> s'appelait le gauss (G ou Gs). Elle est reliée au <a title="Tesla (unité)" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_%28unit%C3%A9%29"><span style="color:#000000;">tesla (T)</span></a> par la relation 1 T = 10000 G </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Un cratère de la Lune se nomme Gauss. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">La première expédition allemande vers l'Antarctique fut appelée <a title="Expédition Gauss" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exp%C3%A9dition_Gauss"><span style="color:#000000;">Expédition Gauss</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span><img src="http://aleaje.wordpress.com/wp-admin/PicExportError" alt="*" width="11" height="11" /><span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Gaussberg</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> est un volcan découvert par cette expédition. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span><img src="http://aleaje.wordpress.com/wp-admin/PicExportError" alt="*" width="11" height="11" /><span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">La <a title="Gauss Tower" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss_Tower"><span style="color:#000000;">Gauss Tower</span></a> est une tour d'observation située en <a title="Basse-Saxe" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basse-Saxe"><span style="color:#000000;">Basse-Saxe</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span><img src="http://aleaje.wordpress.com/wp-admin/PicExportError" alt="*" width="11" height="11" /><span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Un concours canadien de mathématiques est organisé par le <span>Centre for Education in Mathematics and Computing</span> tous les ans en l'honneur de Gauss. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Wingdings;"><span><img src="http://aleaje.wordpress.com/wp-admin/PicExportError" alt="*" width="11" height="11" /><span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">On trouve dans plusieurs jeux vidéos des armes à accélération magnétique nommées "canon de Gauss" ou "pistolet Gauss". Citons <a title="Fallout" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout"><span style="color:#000000;">Fallout</span></a>, <a title="Half-life" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-life"><span style="color:#000000;">Half-life</span></a>, <a title="OGame" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/OGame"><span style="color:#000000;">OGame</span></a> ou encore <a title="Syndicate Wars" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicate_Wars"><span style="color:#000000;">Syndicate Wars</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="C. F. Gauss, timbre DDR, 1977" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Stamp_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg"></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">C. F. Gauss</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">, timbre DDR, 1977</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Utilisation_de_l.27image_de_Gauss"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Utilisation de l'image de Gauss</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Billets de banque : de <a title="1989" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989"><span style="color:#000000;">1989</span></a> à fin <a title="2001" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001"><span style="color:#000000;">2001</span></a>, date de l'abandon de la monnaie allemande au profit de l'euro, le portrait de Gauss, avec une courbe de distribution normale, figurait sur les billets de dix <a title="Deutsche Mark" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mark"><span style="color:#000000;">deutschemarks</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Timbres : l'Allemagne en a édité trois en son honneur, un en 1955, et deux en 1977 pour son 200</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">e</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> anniversaire. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Voir_aussi"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Voir aussi</span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span><span class="editsection9"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">[<a title="Voir aussi" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&#38;action=edit&#38;section=10"><span style="color:#000000;">modifier</span></a>]</span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Accueil" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Accueil"></a></span></p>
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<td style="background-color:transparent;border:#ece9d8;padding:1.5pt;">
<p style="line-height:normal;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="plainlinks"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Wikimedia Commons" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons"><span style="color:#000000;">Wikimedia Commons</span></a> propose des documents multimédia libres sur <span><a title="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Johann_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F?uselang=fr" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Johann_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F?uselang=fr"><span style="color:#000000;">Carl Friedrich Gauss.</span></a></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Articles_connexes"></a><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Articles connexes</span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span><span class="editsection10"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">[<a title="Articles connexes" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&#38;action=edit&#38;section=11"><span style="color:#000000;">modifier</span></a>]</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Conditions de Gauss" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditions_de_Gauss"><span style="color:#000000;">Conditions de Gauss</span></a> dans les articles <a title="Optique géométrique" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optique_g%C3%A9om%C3%A9trique"><span style="color:#000000;">optique géométrique</span></a>, <a title="Lentille optique" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentille_optique"><span style="color:#000000;">lentille</span></a> et <a title="Miroir" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miroir"><span style="color:#000000;">miroir</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Loi normale" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_normale"><span style="color:#000000;">Loi normale</span></a> gaussienne en probabilités et statistiques (représentée par la <a title="Courbe de Gauss" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courbe_de_Gauss"><span style="color:#000000;">courbe de Gauss</span></a>) </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Détermination orbitale" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9termination_orbitale"><span style="color:#000000;">Détermination orbitale</span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Théorème de Gauss" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_de_Gauss"><span style="color:#000000;">Théorèmes de Gauss</span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quételet" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Adolphe_Jacques_Qu%C3%A9telet"><span style="color:#000000;">Jacques Quételet</span></a>, l'un des fondateurs de la <a title="Statistique" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistique"><span style="color:#000000;">statistique</span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Élimination de Gauss-Jordan" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89limination_de_Gauss-Jordan"><span style="color:#000000;">Élimination de Gauss-Jordan</span></a>, un algorithme de l'algèbre linéaire pour déterminer les solutions d'un système d'équations linéaires, pour déterminer le rang d'une matrice ou pour calculer l'inverse d'une matrice carrée inversible. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Sources_et_liens_externes"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Sources et liens externes</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Biographies </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">G. Waldo Dunnington, <span>Carl Frederick Gauss : Le Titan de la Science.<span> L'auteur</span><span> de cette biographie fut pendant toute sa vie un élève de Gauss. Il écrivit aussi de nombreux articles. </span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Eric Temple Bell" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Temple_Bell"><span style="color:#000000;">E. T. Bell</span></a>, <span>Les grands mathématiciens</span>, Payot, 1961. Chapitre <span class="romain1"><span style="font-variant:normal !important;">XIV</span></span> : <span>Gauss, le Prince des Mathématiciens</span>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="Stephen Hawking" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking"><span style="color:#000000;">Stephen Hawking</span></a>, <span>Et Dieu créa les nombres, les plus grands textes de mathématiques réunis et commentés par l'auteur</span>, Dunod, 2006, 1172pp. In-8 , illustr. portraits h.t. et figures , rel. cart. Textes et biographies : <a title="Euclide" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclide"><span style="color:#000000;">Euclide</span></a>, <a title="Archimède" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archim%C3%A8de"><span style="color:#000000;">Archimède</span></a>, <a title="Diophante" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophante"><span style="color:#000000;">Diophante</span></a>, <a title="René Descartes" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes"><span style="color:#000000;">Descartes</span></a>, <a title="Isaac Newton" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"><span style="color:#000000;">Newton</span></a>, <a title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace"><span style="color:#000000;">Laplace</span></a>, <a title="Joseph Fourier" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fourier"><span style="color:#000000;">Fourier</span></a>, Gauss, <a title="Augustin Louis Cauchy" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Louis_Cauchy"><span style="color:#000000;">Cauchy</span></a>, <a title="George Boole" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Boole"><span style="color:#000000;">Boole</span></a>, <a title="Bernhard Riemann" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann"><span style="color:#000000;">Riemann</span></a>, <a title="Richard Dedekind" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dedekind"><span style="color:#000000;">Dedekind</span></a>, <a title="Georg Cantor" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Cantor"><span style="color:#000000;">Cantor</span></a>, <a title="Henri Lebesgue" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Lebesgue"><span style="color:#000000;">Lebesgue</span></a>, <a title="Kurt Gödel" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del"><span style="color:#000000;">Gödel</span></a>, <a title="Alan Turing" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing"><span style="color:#000000;">Turing</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Liens externes </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">(en)</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> <a title="http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/2977/gauss/english.html" href="http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/2977/gauss/english.html"><span style="color:#000000;">Sur Gauss et son travail</span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">(en)</span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> John J. O'Connor et Edmund F. Robertson, </span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Gauss.html" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Gauss.html"><span style="color:#000000;">Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">, </span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="MacTutor" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor"><span style="color:#000000;">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="http://web.math.hr/mathe/marke/gauss/gauss1.jpg" href="http://web.math.hr/mathe/marke/gauss/gauss1.jpg"><span style="color:#000000;">Timbre représentant Gauss</span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="http://www.banknotes.com/DE38.JPG" href="http://www.banknotes.com/DE38.JPG"><span style="color:#000000;">Gauss sur un billet de 10 Marks allemand</span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a title="http://www.dma.ens.fr/culturemath/maths/pdf/histoire/gauss.pdf" href="http://www.dma.ens.fr/culturemath/maths/pdf/histoire/gauss.pdf"><span style="color:#000000;">Le prince des mathématiques</span></a> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><a name="Notes_et_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></a><span class="mw-headline"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">Notes et références</span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> </span><span class="editsection9"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;">[<a title="Notes et références" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&#38;action=edit&#38;section=13"><span style="color:#000000;">modifier</span></a>]</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>1.<span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span class="renvoisversletexte"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_ref-0#cite_ref-0"><span style="color:#000000;">↑</span></a></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> Le prénom Joseph fut choisi en l'honneur de <a title="Giuseppe Piazzi" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Piazzi"><span style="color:#000000;">Giuseppe Piazzi</span></a>,l'astronome qui découvrit Cérès. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>2.<span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span class="renvoisversletexte"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_ref-1#cite_ref-1"><span style="color:#000000;">↑</span></a></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> On comprit plus tard qu'elle était morte de la tuberculose, dont les premiers signes datent de 1818. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>3.<span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span class="renvoisversletexte"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_ref-2#cite_ref-2"><span style="color:#000000;">↑</span></a></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> En <a title="1896" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896"><span style="color:#000000;">1896</span></a>, deux démonstrations du <a title="Théorème des nombres premiers" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_des_nombres_premiers"><span style="color:#000000;">théorème des nombres premiers</span></a> seront fournies indépendamment par <a title="Jacques Hadamard" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Hadamard"><span style="color:#000000;">Jacques Hadamard</span></a> et <a title="Charles-Jean de La Vallée Poussin" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Jean_de_La_Vall%C3%A9e_Poussin"><span style="color:#000000;">Charles-Jean de La Vallée Poussin</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>4.<span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span class="renvoisversletexte"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_ref-3#cite_ref-3"><span style="color:#000000;">↑</span></a></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> Au cours de sa vie, il produira quatre preuves différentes du théorème et clarifiera considérablement le concept de <a title="Nombre complexe" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nombre_complexe"><span style="color:#000000;">nombre complexe</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>5.<span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span class="renvoisversletexte"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_ref-4#cite_ref-4"><span style="color:#000000;">↑</span></a></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> La méthode avait déjà été décrite par <a title="Adrien-Marie Legendre" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien-Marie_Legendre"><span style="color:#000000;">Adrien-Marie Legendre</span></a> en <a title="1805" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1805"><span style="color:#000000;">1805</span></a>, mais Gauss affirma qu'il l'utilisait depuis <a title="1795" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1795"><span style="color:#000000;">1795</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent:0;text-align:justify;margin:0;"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><span>6.<span style="font:7pt;"> </span></span></span><span class="renvoisversletexte"><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#cite_ref-5#cite_ref-5"><span style="color:#000000;">↑</span></a></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt;font-family:Arial;"> Son ami <a title="Farkas Bolyai" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farkas_Bolyai"><span style="color:#000000;">Farkas Wolfgang Bolyai</span></a> essaie en vain pendant de nombreuses années de démontrer le postulat de la parallèle à partir des autres axiomes de la géométrie d'Euclide. Le fils de Bolyai, <a title="János Bolyai" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Bolyai"><span style="color:#000000;">János Bolyai</span></a>, découvrit à nouveau la possibilité de géométries non euclidiennes en <a title="1820" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1820"><span style="color:#000000;">1820</span></a> ; son travail fut publié en <a title="1832" href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1832"><span style="color:#000000;">1832</span></a>. Plus tard, Gauss essaya de déterminer si le monde physique était en fait euclidien en mesurant des triangles géants. </span></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Peak Oil Doomsters debunked, end of civilization called off]]></title>
<link>http://fabiusmaximus.wordpress.com/?p=290</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 08 May 2008 00:01:54 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Fabius Maximus</dc:creator>
<guid>http://fabiusmaximus.wordpress.com/?p=290</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Summary: a brief analysis of Matt Savinar&#8217;s Life After the Oil Crash.  Are we doomed?  Proba]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Summary: a brief analysis of<em> </em><a title="bio" href="http://www.lifeaftertheoilcrash.net/AboutMattSavinar.html" target="_blank"><em>Matt Savinar</em></a><em>'s </em><a title="crash" href="http://www.lifeaftertheoilcrash.net/Index.html" target="_blank"><em>Life After the Oil Crash</em></a><em>.  </em>Are we doomed?  Probably not.  My title is, of course, fun but absurd.  Peak oil is too vast a subject, the range of expert opinion too wide, for any blog post to pose as more than a introduction -- showing one perspective of the many possible.  Still, I believe this makes a good case for betting that peak oil will not result in depression and war.   But it could easily mean two decades of severe economic pain.  Please see the conclusion for caveats, and the links at the end of the post for more information.<em> </em></p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em><strong>"Are We 'Running Out'? I Thought There Was 40 Years of the Stuff Left"</strong></em></p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>Oil will not just "run out" because all oil production follows a bell curve. This is true whether we're talking about an individual field, a country, or on the planet as a whole.</em></p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>Oil is increasingly plentiful on the upslope of the bell curve, increasingly scarce and expensive on the down slope. The peak of the curve coincides with the point at which the endowment of oil has been 50 percent depleted. Once the peak is passed, oil production begins to go down while cost begins to go up.</em></p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>In practical and considerably oversimplified terms, this means that if <a title="peak" href="http://www.princeton.edu/hubbert/current-events.html" target="_blank">2005 was the year of global Peak Oil</a>, worldwide oil production in the year 2030 will be the same as it was in 1980. However, the world's population in 2030 will be both much larger (approximately twice) and much more industrialized (oil-dependent) than it was in 1980. Consequently, <a title="demand -production" href="http://money.cnn.com/2005/03/21/commentary/column_hays/hays/" target="_blank">worldwide demand for oil will outpace worldwide production</a> of oil by a significant margin. As a result, the price will skyrocket, oil dependant economies will crumble, and <a title="wars" href="http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/1888/michael_klare_on_oil_wars_and_the_american_military" target="_blank">resource wars will explode</a>. </em></p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>The issue is not one of "running out" so much as it is not having enough to keep our economy running. In this regard, the ramifications of Peak Oil for our civilization are similar to the ramifications of dehydration for the human body. ... A loss of as little as 10-15 pounds of water may be enough to kill him. In a similar sense, an oil based economy such as ours doesn't need to deplete its entire reserve of oil before it begins to collapse. A shortfall between demand and supply as little as 10 to 15 percent is enough to wholly shatter an oil-dependent economy and reduce its citizenry to poverty. ...</em></p>
<p>Savinar has great confidence about his vision.  No hedging with "if" or "maybe."  Before booking flights to New Zealand or Tasmania, let's consider this carefully.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>I.</strong> These forecasts seem very confident. Are they credible?</span></p>
<p>Does <span style="font-family:Verdana;">Savinar </span>subscribe to the Psychic Hotline? Energy forecasts — esp. those warning of Peak Oil — have been notoriously wrong for many decades. Has the future suddenly become clear as glass? Let us parse the third paragraph on this home page.</p>
<p><!--more--></p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>“In practical and considerably oversimplified terms, this means that if 2005 was the year of global Peak Oil, worldwide oil production in the year 2030 will be the same as it was in 1980.”</em></p>
<p>It was an evil day for humanity when Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss “invented” the bell curve. It applies to many phenomena, but not to ALL phenomena. There is a strong basis to believe the global production curve will be asymmetric. Just to mention one, the graph should be of “liquid fuels” not oil, as substitutes for petroleum (e.g., biofuels, coal to liquids) were insignificant on the way up – but might be significant on the way down. Also, 2005 may have been but probably was not the peak year (see section II below).</p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>“However, the world’s population in 2030 will be both much larger (approximately twice) and much more industrialized (oil-dependent) than it was in 1980. Consequently, worldwide demand for oil will outpace worldwide production of oil by a significant margin.”</em></p>
<p>How wonderful that the author understands so much about the technology and economy of 2030. No doubt he is a billionaire, as his technology and biotech bets made in 1986 must have paid off nicely.</p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>“As a result, the price will skyrocket, oil dependant economies will crumble, and resource wars will explode.”</em></p>
<p>Sounds ominous. Can we see his forecasts for 2008 written in 1986? Did he predict the USSR’s collapse, the two Gulf Wars, the Rise of China, and the economic growth of the past five years (perhaps the fastest global growth since the invention of agriculture)?</p>
<p>The actual experts that I read tend to be more modest in their predictions. In fact, I suspect an inverse correlation between expertise and over-confident rhetoric. For example, Robert Hirsch’s writing sound nothing like this site.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>II. </strong>Time</span></p>
<p>Peaking, political or geological, might have already occurred, or might occur during the next ten or twenty years (almost certainly in the next 40 years). We do not have the data necessary for more accurate forecasts (e.g., data on Saudi reserves).</p>
<p>Short-term fluctuations are common in the record, so the plateau in oil consumption since 2005 tells us little -- especially as we do not know the cause. It might result from ...</p>
<ol>
<li>geological -- we cannot bring on new production faster than decline of existing fields</li>
<li>transient -- new developments have not yet caught up with rising demand), or</li>
<li>political -- Middle Eastern producers can produce more, but choose not to. See these posts: <a title="hirsch" href="http://fabiusmaximus.wordpress.com/2008/04/08/hirsch-energypolicy/" target="_blank">definition</a> of political peaking, and <a title="pol peak" href="http://fabiusmaximus.wordpress.com/2008/04/25/abdullah/" target="_blank">its announcement</a>.  It is almost as painful as geological peaking.</li>
</ol>
<p>As oil prices have risen over the past five years, the adaptation process has already begun. We just need time. Among the <a title="three" href="http://fabiusmaximus.wordpress.com/2008/04/23/oil/" target="_blank">three forms of peaking</a>, <span style="font-family:Verdana;">Savinar</span> assumes the worst case -- a "strong form" of peaking in which a peak occurs soon (before the adaption process has run far), with a short plateau, followed by a rapid decline (he calls a global 3% annual decline rate "conservative", because many fields have declined at faster rates, which does not take into account the difference between "one field" and "all fields").</p>
<p>That is, of course, possible -- but not, as <span style="font-family:Verdana;">Savinar</span> implies, certain. Even that scenario would not mean the end of civilization, just severe economic pain during the ten or twenty year-long adaption process, for the reasons discussed below.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>III.</strong> The magic of prices</span></p>
<p><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Savinar </span>assumes that rising prices will wreck civilization, with no other effects. Changing prices are <em>information in motion</em> for a free market economy, signaling changes in the environment and forcing people act. The author ignore these mechanisms.</p>
<p>A.  <strong>Substitute other things for energy</strong>. Convenience (car pool or buses instead of driving alone to work or play). Higher cost goods from local suppliers for cheaper but distant goods. Substitute rail for truck transport. Local vacations for trips to Disneyland, Las Vegas, or Europe. Light clothing for air conditioning; sweaters for heating. Tele-conferencing for meetings.</p>
<p>B.  Make investments (capital expenditures) to increase energy <strong>energy efficiency</strong>. Insulation. More efficient motors. Hybrid cars.</p>
<p>C.  Make investments to <strong>substitute other forms of energy</strong> for petroleum. Replace gasoline and diesel vehicles with electric cars, trucks, <a title="farm" href="http://peakoildebunked.blogspot.com/2007/12/317-electric-agricultural-machinery.html" target="_blank">farm vehicles</a>. Solar panels replace diesel generators. Electricity and water can replace natural gas in the production of <a title="fertilizer" href="http://peakoildebunked.blogspot.com/2007/11/314-peak-oil-and-fertilizer-no-problem.html" target="_blank">fertilizer</a>. Convert coal to liquid fuel.</p>
<p>D.  <strong>Innovation</strong>: higher prices spark innovation, both new ways to do things and new technology.  Here is just one of a thousand examples (none of these are magic bullets, their collective impact is impossible to foresee).  "<a title="wapo" href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/11/AR2008041103326_pf.html" target="_blank">Making the World A Billion Times Better</a>", Ray Kurzweil, Washington Post (13 April 2008) -- Read his <a title="wiki" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Kurzweil" target="_blank">Wikipedia bio</a>!  Excerpt:</p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em> Take energy. Today, 70 percent of it comes from fossil fuels, a 19th-century technology. But if we could capture just one ten-thousandth of the sunlight that falls on Earth, we could meet 100 percent of the world's energy needs using this renewable and environmentally friendly source. We can't do that now because solar panels rely on old technology, making them expensive, inefficient, heavy and hard to install. But a new generation of panels based on nanotechnology (which manipulates matter at the level of molecules) is starting to overcome these obstacles. The tipping point at which energy from solar panels will actually be less expensive than fossil fuels is only a few years away. The power we are generating from solar is doubling every two years; at that rate, it will be able to meet all our energy needs within 20 years.</em></p>
<p>As stated above, all these things take time.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>IV. </strong>Energy efficiency</span></p>
<p><span style="font-family:Verdana;">Savinar</span>assumes that reduced oil consumption means less economic activity. History shows this is not necessarily true. Oil prices rose from $1.80 in 1970 to $36.83 in 1980 (Arabian Light oil price, as posted at Ras Tanura). Reacting to that, global oil consumption peaked in 1979 at 66,048 million barrels/day, then dropped by 14% through 1983 — reaching the 1979 peak again only after 14 years, in 1993 (see the <a title="BP 2007 Statistical Review" href="http://www.bp.com/productlanding.do?categoryId=6848&#38;contentId=7033471" target="_blank"><span style="color:#0000ff;">BP Statistical Review</span></a> for details). During that period the global economy (GDP) increased at roughly 3%, slightly below the post-WWII average (using IMF <a title="IMF World Economic Outlook data" href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/02/weodata/download.aspx" target="_blank"><span style="color:#0000ff;">data</span></a>). A fourteen percent decline in consumption!</p>
<p>At $120, oil prices are up 6x from the 1990's average. Almost certainly that price shock has created substantial efforst to change energy use, whose results might have not yet appeared in the data. But they will appear, I suspect. Sooner than people expect.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>V. </strong>The global effect of high oil prices</span></p>
<p>Unlike the author's implied assumption, money spent to buy oil does not disappear. Oil producers invest or spend it. Hence rising oil prices <strong>shift </strong>wealth and income around the globe, not destroy it. To the extent that oil <em>producers</em> save more than oil <em>consumers</em>, this has a net slowing effect on the economy. But nothing like the Armageddon described in doomsters' forecasts. This reduced growth in GDP slows the growth in demand for oil. If prices rise so that real global GDP slows to 2%/year (very roughly), oil demand no longer increases. If oil prices rocket high enough, global GDP will actually fall (historically a rare event, except during wars).</p>
<p>To put this in perspective, oil prices have risen from their 1990's average of $20 (West Texas Intermediate) to $120 during a period of record or near-record (depending on whose numbers are used) growth in global GDP.</p>
<p>Why have rising oil prices not wrecked the global economy? The consensus five years ago was that every $10 increase in oil prices slashed at least 1/2% off real global GDP growth. Answer: energy consumption per dollar of GDP has declined -- a lot. In 1950 the US used almost 20 <a title="widi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Btu" target="_blank">British Thermal Units</a> (BTU) to produce $1 of GDP. In 1970 it was 17.44 BTU. Today it takes 8.78 BTU. (From <em>The Gartman Letter</em>, 7 May 2008, based on data from the EIA and Dr. Mark Perry of the University of Michigan)</p>
<p>This is not because we "no longer make things." US manufacturing as a % GDP has been flatish for a generation.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;">Conclusion</span></p>
<p>Much of this post is over-simplified for brevity and suitability for a general audience. Also, I may have incorrectly represented <span style="font-family:Verdana;">Matt Savinar's assumptions. On the whole, however, I hope this post shows the weak and speculative basis of "end of civilization" and "die-off" scenarios about Peak Oil. Given all this, </span><span style="font-family:Verdana;">I find this discouraging: (from Savinar's "<a title="about" href="http://www.lifeaftertheoilcrash.net/AboutMattSavinar.html" target="_blank">about</a>" page)</span></p>
<p style="padding-left:30px;"><em>LifeAftertheOilCrash.net, averages 15,000 visits and 50,000 page view per day. It is assigned reading at multiple university courses around the world.</em></p>
<p>Unfortunately there is an information shortage about Peak Oil. There is too-little good research (Hirsch and his peers are grossly underfunded), and even less reliable information for the public. Neither is a good indicator of our readiness for peak oil.</p>
<p>The faster we prepare, the easier the transition will be to peak oil. Other nations already have strong programs in motion to prepare for peak oil. We are among the world's laggards. Civilization will continue even if America falters as a result of peak oil, just as it survived the fall of the Spanish Empire. We have the ability to adapt, but so far lack the will and awareness of the need.</p>
<p>Over-dramatizations like "life after the crash" are part of the problem, in my opinion, not part of the solution. They are too easily dismissed, and unfortunately the awareness of peak oil often