cooperative learning ทฤษฎีที่เชื่อว่าการส่งเสริมให้ผู้เรียนร่วมมือกันทำงานเป็นกลุ่ม จะได้ผลดีกว่าสำหรับทุกคนมากกว่าการต่างคนต่างทำ

ที่มา
วิทยากร เชียงกูล
อธิบายศัพท์สังคมศาสตร์เพื่อการพัฒนา, - - กรุงเทพฯ : สายธาร, 2550.
ISBN : 978-974-94365-7-8

Literatur:

Hernández-Leo, D., Villasclaras-Fernández, E. D., Asensio-Pérez, J. I., Dimitriadis, Y. A., & Retalis, S. (2006). CSCL Scripting Patterns: Hierarchical Relationships and Applicability. Proceedings of the Sixth IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) (p. 388-392.). Washington, DC: IEEE.

Stark erinnert mich dieses Konzept an den Ansatz der verteilten Kognition (distribution cognitions), der u.a. von Salomon geprägt wurde. Hier wird der soziale Aspekt der Wissenskonstruktion hervorgehoben. Man konstruiert nicht als einzelner Wissen, sondern im Austausch mit anderen. Dabei sind Menschen mit unterschiedlichem Vorwissen und unterschiedlichen Kompetenzen beteiligt, sodass die gesamte kognitive Konstruktionsleistung erst durch die Vernetzung der "einzelnen Gehirne" zustande gebracht wird. Kognitionen können nach diesem Ansatz aber nicht nur "auf mehrere Köpfe verteilt" werden, sondern auch auf Werkzeuge. So nimmt mir beispielsweise ein Tabellenkalkulationssystem lästige Rechnungen ab, sodass meine eigene Kapazität frei wird für wertvollere Überlegungen. Das Tabellenkalkulationssystem und ich sind dann ein System verteilter Kognitionen.

Insgesamt sollten beide Ansätze bewirken, sich als einzelnen Denker nicht allzu wichtig zu nehmen und sich vielmehr als Teil der denkenden Gruppe zu begreifen, die sich auf der Basis unterschiedlicher Fähig- und Fertigkeiten gegenseitig unterstützt und weiterbringt.

Literatur:

• Martin, J.-P: Lernziel Partizipationsfähigkeit und Netzsensibilität
• Salomon, G. (Hrsg.) (1993). Distributed cognitions. Psychological and educational considerations. New York: Cambridge University Press.

• Vorratsdatenspeicherung
• Veröffentlichung persönlicher Daten im Netz
• Cyberbullying
• Urheberrechtsverletzungen

Mich hat dabei mal wieder erstaunt, wie schnell man sich heute über ein Thema informieren und anschließend sogar einen fachlichen Vortrag darüber halten kann, selbst wenn man nur vages Vorwissen mitbringt.

Die Zeitknappheit bei der Vorbereitung hat natürlich auch methodische Vorteile. Wenn sich ein Team schnell vorbereiten muss, dann müssen sie sich die Arbeit aufteilen. Dies läuft unter den Stichworten "positive gegenseitige Abhängigkeit" und "individuelle Verantwortlichkeit", wie es Johnson und Johnson (1993) formulieren. Die Gruppe kann nur ein gutes Ergebnis abliefern, wenn alle ihren Teil dazu beitragen. Dabei ist vielleicht auch die Gefahr geringer, dass es "Mitläufer" gibt.

Ein weiterer positiver Nebeneffekt ist vielleicht, dass die Folienanzahl in einem überschaubaren Rahmen bleibt. :-)

Literatur:

Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T. (1993). Cooperative learning and feedback in technology-based instruction. In: J. V. Dempsey & G. C. Sales (Hrsg.), Interactive instruction and feedback (S. 133-157). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Parrebbe uno scenario liberale, persino democratico.

Ma piuttosto pericoloso: chi ha buon gusto e molte possibilità (magari non per merito suo, ma dell’ambiente in cui l’inconsapevole cicogna l’ha paracadutato) può legittimamente godere di un Brunello di Montalcino (Biondi-Santi?); chi è un po’ grezzo e/o non ne ha la possibilità, si farà piacere quel vinello da tavola venduto a quintalate in variopinti scatolami di tetrapak.

A questo punto la mia coscienza da arcaico (sia pur pentito!) cattocomunista, mi farebbe propendere per una strategia pedagogica ispirata alla individualizzazione (far raggiungere a tutti gli stessi obiettivi, magari con strategie didattiche differenziate).

Accogliendo però l’avertissement di Fiorentino:

“Non basta dire che le mete sono comuni, perché se gli obiettivi comuni sono in quantità enciclopedica e in una logica disciplinarista, anche se si professa come credo politico-pedagogico l’individualizzazione, in realtà si pratica la personalizzazione nel senso più deteriore del termine.
Al di là quindi delle dispute nominali, ciò che conta, proprio per garantire traguardi culturali comuni, è la selezione dei saperi adeguati alla portata di tutti gli studenti, e in una quantità che sia compatibile con didattiche, metodologie di tipo laboratoriale, con tempi distesi, che mettano effettivamente lo studente al centro del processo di costruzione della conoscenza”. (http://www.funzioniobiettivo.it/glossadid/attivita_didattica.htm )

Dubbi spariti?

Ovviamente no!

Ancora una volta: bello, democratico, politicamente corretto (sulla carta). Ma in pratica?

Se penso a certe classi, la selezione di saperi adeguati e compatibili con strategie costruzioniste porterebbe ad attività d’apprendimento talmente minimali da fare invidia al più spartano degli educatori zen.

Insomma: sposando la logica dell’individualizzazione a tutti i costi si rischia – inevitabilmente? - di abbassare talmente il livello delle richieste da far precipitare ulteriormente la già pendente PISA.

E in un ambiente di apprendimento in cui si fa poco (sia pur con molta eleganza metodologica) il discriminato, ancora una volta, non è – semplifico, ovviamente – il figlio di mammà (che s’interfaccia con millanta opportunità cognitive anche fuori dalla scuola, a casa, in palestra, con gli amici, nel web…), ma il figlio di…

E allora?

E allora abbeveriamoci avidamente di argomentazioni pedagogiche, senza scordare però che alla fine ciò che conta è il buon senso del docente. Un docente allenatore che deve guardare ai suoi ragazzi non come a singoli turisti a zonzo nell’ipermercato del sapere, ma come ad una squadra che assieme deve allenarsi, giocare, lottare per raggiungere un obiettivo comune. Ed il docente allenatore sa (grazie, Gardner!!!) che può far giocare qualcuno centravanti, qualcuno all’ala, qualcuno col ruolo di regista, qualcuno in difesa… Che farà giocare qualcuno per i piedi buoni, qualcuno per la forza, il coraggio, l’intelligenza tattica, la capacità di fare spogliatoio… E che qualche giocatore si renderà utile in panchina…

Qualcuno sarà nominato il migliore in campo, qualcuno prenderà il premio per la combattività, qualcun altro…

Ma l’allenatore di buon senso sa che per ottenere buoni risultati ciò che conta è lo spogliatoio, l’affiatamento, il gioco di squadra: se ci si allena assieme (learning by doing), se si gioca e si lotta assieme (cooperative learning) si vince sempre. O quasi…

[E chi non si allena seriamente non può finire fuori squadra e forse fuori dal gioco?]

On the list is a link to Colorín Colorado--Colorín Colorado is a free web-based service that provides information, activities and advice for educators and Spanish-speaking families of English language learners (ELLs).

Take a look at Colorín Colorado's strategies for teaching ELL students reading (K-12) here. I particularly like the site's suggested cooperative learning strategies to help students build literacy skills and content area knowledge. For example, have you ever tried having a class tea party or writearound?

• Tea Party: Students form two concentric circles or two lines facing each other. You ask a question (on any content) and students discuss the answer with the student facing them. After one minute, the outside circle or one line moves to the right so that students have new partners. Then pose a second question for them to discuss. Continue with five or more questions. For a little variation, students can write questions on cards to review for a test through this "Tea Party" method.

• Writearound: For creative writing or summarization, give a sentence starter (for example: If you give an elephant a cookie, he's going to ask for...). Ask all students in each team to finish that sentence. Then, they pass their paper to the right, read the one they received, and add a sentence to that one. After a few rounds, four great stories or summaries emerge. Give children time to add a conclusion and/or edit their favorite one to share with the class.

Thanks WETA for sponsoring Colorín Colorado!

Anna

: : : :

Tujuan utama penerapan cooperative learning adalah agar siswa dapat belajar secara berkelompok bersama teman dengan cara saling menghargai pendapat dan memberikan kesempatan pada orang lain untuk mengemukakan pendapat. 

I have to admit: I think I gained 5 pounds in the last couple of weeks dreading the start of this school year.  I had to take the 12 units I needed to get my Music Education degree, which included practicum and a special project, our department's equivalent to thesis.  I also was going back to Immaculate Conception Academy to teach 18 sections in high school.  So, I spent my lst 2 weeks of summer vacation refusing to move (except to train for badminton) because I knew I'd be moving non-stop come June 10.

But my first day back in UP wasn't so bad.  My college friends were there.  The campus was like a second home to me.  And because of teaching, I had gotten over the jitters young students usually would get when going to their classes for the first time.  So, *poof* went my anxiety over UP.

The next day, I had ICA to tackle.  I taught there for two years so I knew my way around the grounds.  Still, there were new things to get used to like the renovated faculty room and airconditioned third and fourth year classes.  I was really nervous, but it was more like the nerves one gets as the curtain rises before a performance.   As I stood in front of my new students, my mind twitched with the thought, "I'm going to make a fool of myself."  But when I opened my mouth to greet them, I felt a warmth come over me as the words came out effortlessly.  To start off the school year right, I gave them a round robin activity called "Memorable Mosts", something I cooked up so I can get to know them and their thoughts on music class.

Something I appreciated about my new girls: If you ask them to be honest, they will be.  Their candour affirmed my own thoughts about teaching music:

1. It's not at all hard to make them hate my subject. 
2. Given a choice between a group performance for which they have to rehearse  and a 10-point quiz, they would rather perform.  And would always rather experience music than read or copy from the board.
3. They don't enjoy watching documentaries and would rather I "blab away" (their words) in front of the class.  This one was a real shocker. 

There were other revelations that were not pleasant to hear, but I welcomed them because pleasantries don't always encourage growth.  One thing was obvious, though.  Just like me, the girls wanted music class to be fun. 

By the end of my seventh class, I walked back to the faculty room with a sense of peace.  I was back to earnest teaching, back where I belonged, and, like fish in water, in my element. 

A huge sigh of relief.

Now I can start losing all that extra weight.

Pada Cooperative Learning siswa bekerja bersama-sama dalam team yang beranggotakan 4 atau 5 siswa. Cooperative Learning is a succesful teaching strategy in wich small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve the understanding of a subject. Each members of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, yhus creatung an atmosphere of achievement. (http://www.ed.gov). Pada definisi tersebut terkandung pengertian bahwa dalam belajar kooperatif

banyaknya anggota kelompok kecil, kemampuan anggota-anggota kelompok yang berbeda, menggunakan aktivitas belajar yang bervariasi untuk meningkatkan pemahaman diri. Setiap anggota kelompok tidak hanya bertanggung jawab pada belajar sendiri tetapi juga membantu teman satu team yang lain dalam belajar, sehingga tercipta suasana sukses.

Definisi lain dikemukakan oleh Roger T. Johnson dan David W. Johnson (http://www.co_operation.org), bahwa: Cooperative learning is a relationship in a group of students that requires positive interdependence (a sense of sink or swim together), individual accountability (each of us has to contribute and learn), interpersonal skills (communication, fruit, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution), face to face promotive interaction and processing (reflection on how well the team is functioning and how to function even better). Pada definsi ini terkandung

pemahaman bahwa dalam belajar kooperatif tercipta kerjasama yang baik antar anggota team ada ketergantungan saling memerlukan yang positip (menanamkan rasa kebersamaan), tanggung jawab masing-masing anggota (setiap anggota memiliki sumbangan dan belajar), keterampilan hubungan antar person (komunikasi, keberhasilan, kepemimpinan, membuat keputusan, dan penyelesaian konflik), tatap muka menaikkan interaksi dan pengolahan data.

Slavin mengemukakan bahwa: Cooperative Learning refers to a variety of teaching methods in which students work in a small groups to help one another learn academic content. In cooperative classrooms, student are expected to help each other, to discuss and argue with each other, to assess each other’s current knowledge in fill in gaps in each other understanding.

Belajar bekerjasama berkenaan dengan berbagai macam metode pembelajaran yang perwujudan realnya siswa bekerja dalam group-group kecil dan saling membantu belajar materi akademis. Dalam kerjasama dalam bentuk kelas, partisipasi yang diharapkan dari siswa adalah saling membantu satu sama lain, berdiskusi dan berargumentasi satu sama lain, saling menilai pengetahuan dan perbedaan pemahaman satu sama lain.

Dari pengertian-pengertian tersebut dapat ditarik simpulan bahwa dalam pembelajaran kooperatif memiliki unsur-unsur:

1. Siswa belajar dalam kelompok kecil yang beranggotakan 4 sampai 5 orang untuk efektifitas kelompok dalam belajar. Anggota kelompok yang terlalu besar tidak menjamin adanya kerja belajar yang efektif.

2. Setiap anggota kelompok memiliki rasa ketergantungan dalam kelompok, keberhasilan kelompok sangat ditentukan oleh kekompakan anggota-

anggota dalam kelompok tersebut.

3. Diperlukan tanggung jawab masing-masing anggota kelompok, kesadaran tanggung jawab masing-masing anggota kelompok dalam belajar sangat mendukung keberhasilan kelompok.

4. Terdapat kegiatan komunikasi tatap muka baik antar anggota kelompok daslam kelompok maupun antar kelompok. Adanya komunikasi ini dapat

mendorong terjadinya interaksi positip, sesama siswa dapat lebih saling mengenal, masing-masing siswa saling menghargai pendapat teman,

menerima kelebihan dan kekurangan teman apa adanya, menghargai perbedaan pendapat yang selalu terjadi dalam kehidupan. Siswa saling

asah, saling asih dan saling asuh.

5. Anggota-anggota kelompk berlatih untuk mengevalusi pedapat teman, melalui adu argumentasi, belajar menerima hasil evaluasi dari teman sesama anggota kelompok, pada akhirnya dapat menumbuhkan rasa toleransi pendapat dan bergaul dalam hidup bermasyarakat.

Dari 5 hal di atas dapat ditarik simpulan bahwa lewat pembelajaran kooperatif, di samping diperoleh pencapaian aspek akademik yang tinggi di kalangan siswa, juga bermakna dalam membantu guru dalam mencapai tujuan pembelajaran yang berdimensi sosial dalam hubungannya dengan sesama. Adapun dalam model pembelajaran kooperatif ini peran guru yang dapat ditampilkan antara lain :

Terkait dengan Cooperative Learning, Slavin mengemukakan beberapa model, antara lain:

1). Student Teams-Achievement Divisons, yang memiliki 5 komponen, yaitu:

(a). Class Presentation (presentasi kelas); (b). Teams (kelompok); (c) quizzes (kuis); (d) individual improvement scores (peningkatan skore individu); (e). Team recognition (penghargaan kelompok).

2). Teams-Games-Tournament yang dikembangkan oleh David De Vries dan Keith Edwards, pembentukan kelompok memperhatikan perbedaan jenis kelamin dan tingkat kemampuan siswa, yang memiliki 5 komponen, yaitu:

(a). Class Presentation oleh guru; (b). Tim mengerjakan lembar kerja yang telah disiapkan guru; (c). Saling mengajukan pertanyaan dan belajar bersama untuk menghadapi turnament; (d) tournament yang biasanya diselenggarakan seminggu sekali. Kurang lengkap.

3). Jigsaw II yang diadaptasi oleh Elliot Aronson’s dari teknik jigsaw. Seperti pada STAD dan TGT, team bekerja dengan keaggotaan 4 siswa yang heterogen.

Kata kunci : pembelajaran kooperatif, cooperative learning, inovasi pembelajaran, pembelajaran mipa, jigsaw, teams games tournament, class presentation, slavin, stad, tgt, team recognition

There has been very little written about this concept, and I wrote this, at the end of last year, by way of an article to support a product which is to be released by Promethean in early 2009.

Cooperative learning encourages children's interpersonal skills which can be especially helpful in enhancing children’s cognitive development.  Asking children to actively exchange ideas and to share different points of view is likely to be most effective when the right environment/platform is offered. Collaboration skills are not inherent in children and the skills needed to work together in pairs or small groups are quite distinct from working alone.Situations such as these are not easy to set up and to be able to add an element of technology will be an engaging catalyst to these objectives.

During early childhood, children often act first and discuss later, a teacher can play a vital role by helping them clarify their goal before they attempt to solve the problem. The sharing of ideas amongst group members is the underlying premise of collaborative learning in contrast to competition in which individuals are driven to win.  The level of interaction is helpful to children in developing their social abilities and developing mutual respect for each other.

Collaborative learning has been proven to increase children’s engagement and offering children the opportunity to use two pens simultaneously opens up a whole new world of interaction.  Not only can the children work together on a problem, they can also respond immediately without having to take turns or impact on their partners’ interaction. Very young children often work along side each other, needing to feel accompanied in their activity but still needing to feel in control of their own actions.  Collaboration is something which children need to explore to enable them to develop their social skills and appreciate the value of a friend’s opinion.Using more than one pen at the same time, means that spur-of-the-moment opportunities present themselves allowing for adult intervention when required to ensure that the opportunity is maximised.  Encouraging this type of activity can be planned for or can be part of independent activity where children can access the board throughout the school day.By providing an interactive ‘Arena’, where pupils can collaborate more easily, learners are encouraged to interact with each other, not just the whiteboard.

Working together on tasks has been shown to improve children’s understanding and retention of knowledge. In addition, there are social benefits – collaboration encourages development of communication skills and enables students to take a more active part in their learning.  

Con questa tecnica le responsabilità sono "spalmate" su tutti i componenti del gruppo, permettendo una gestione dei carichi di lavoro ottimizzata. Se uno dei componenti non partecipa al lavoro però, ne risentono anche gli altri. Questo il punto: quale che sia il risultato ottenuto, positivo o negativo, non dipende direttamente dal mio lavoro. Quindi, logicamente, io non ho responsabilità su quello che si fa. Questa è un'evidentissima contraddizione.

Devo ammettere che questo post è abbastanza lontano da quello che si chiama NPOV (neutral point of view), dato che ne sono stato coinvolto in persona. Spero però possa tornare utile per riflettere su aspetti di questa tecnica di insegnamento che spesso e volentieri non sono considerati quando si decide di adottarla.

A proposito, il cooperative multitasking è il modello di multitasking adottato dal DOS e dai sistemi operativi derivati, non in grado di effettuare un vero multitasking, in cui alle applicazioni è richiesto di controllare il loro tempo di esecuzione (grossomodo, lo scopo di questo articolo non è quello di spiegare cos'è il cooperative mutlitasking).

Grow's (1991) Staged Self-Directed Learning Model (SSDL) explains a lot of what I had experienced as a college instructor, introducing cooperative learning to business students. I use cooperative learning and SDL to teach project management fundamentals and Internet-related skills courses.

One of the most confusing things for me was how, in the same class of 15-30 students, I could be simultaneously rated in their feedback as 'extremely helpful 'and 'a great instructor' and as 'of no help' and 'a terrible instructor'. How could these two extremes be represented in the same group being taught the same material in the same class?

Using Grow's (1991) SSDL Model, I found I had inadvertently created a mismatch between my instructional style and the learning styles of some of the students. The mismatch was between my 'facilitative' style, decribed by Grow as T3, and the S1 'dependent' learning style of some students in the class. According to Grow, T3/S1 teacher/student mismatches are severe, often resulting in "students [who] may resent the teacher for forcing upon them a freedom they are not ready for" (1991, p. 13)

Now I have a model to apply to my instructional delivery tools and processes that allows me to better match my instructional style with the various learner styles in the class.

For more information on the SSDL model, see Gerald Grow's Spring 1991 article in Adult Education Quarterly.

Grow, G. (1991, Spring). Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3). Retrieved September 30, 2007, from http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/SSDL/SSDLIndex.html

Mio figlio di 5 elem. ieri mi ha raccontato tutto felice che a scuola fanno un nuovo gioco il TELEGIORNALE: ognuno prende nota di 2 o 3 notizie del TG, le appunta su un taccuino poi in classe fanno una simulazione (credo tipo Striscia), uno legge le notizie, una fa la musichetta, una balla, uno fa l’inviato, e altri si fanno intervistare.

Sottolinea “con le notizie vere mamma”.

Rispondo: “Che bello!! E con che maestra fate questa interessante attività”

“Con nessuna, mamma: spostiamo i banchi a ricreazione e lo facciamo noi”.

Morale: i bambini troveranno sempre, da soli la via ... giusta?

------------------